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| -rw-r--r-- | docs/types/value-types.rst | 708 |
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diff --git a/docs/types.rst b/docs/types.rst index 61b0afc0..ea45b7d7 100644 --- a/docs/types.rst +++ b/docs/types.rst @@ -18,1124 +18,9 @@ declared variables always have a :ref:`default value<default-value>` dependent on its type. To handle any unexpected values, you should use the :ref:`revert function<assert-and-require>` to revert the whole transaction, or return a tuple with a second `bool` value denoting success. -.. index:: ! value type, ! type;value -.. _value-types: +.. include:: types/value-types.rst -Value Types -=========== - -The following types are also called value types because variables of these -types will always be passed by value, i.e. they are always copied when they -are used as function arguments or in assignments. - -.. index:: ! bool, ! true, ! false - -Booleans --------- - -``bool``: The possible values are constants ``true`` and ``false``. - -Operators: - -* ``!`` (logical negation) -* ``&&`` (logical conjunction, "and") -* ``||`` (logical disjunction, "or") -* ``==`` (equality) -* ``!=`` (inequality) - -The operators ``||`` and ``&&`` apply the common short-circuiting rules. This means that in the expression ``f(x) || g(y)``, if ``f(x)`` evaluates to ``true``, ``g(y)`` will not be evaluated even if it may have side-effects. - -.. index:: ! uint, ! int, ! integer - -Integers --------- - -``int`` / ``uint``: Signed and unsigned integers of various sizes. Keywords ``uint8`` to ``uint256`` in steps of ``8`` (unsigned of 8 up to 256 bits) and ``int8`` to ``int256``. ``uint`` and ``int`` are aliases for ``uint256`` and ``int256``, respectively. - -Operators: - -* Comparisons: ``<=``, ``<``, ``==``, ``!=``, ``>=``, ``>`` (evaluate to ``bool``) -* Bit operators: ``&``, ``|``, ``^`` (bitwise exclusive or), ``~`` (bitwise negation) -* Shift operators: ``<<`` (left shift), ``>>`` (right shift) -* Arithmetic operators: ``+``, ``-``, unary ``-``, ``*``, ``/``, ``%`` (modulo), ``**`` (exponentiation) - - -Comparisons -^^^^^^^^^^^ - -The value of a comparison is the one obtained by comparing the integer value. - -Bit operations -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -Bit operations are performed on the two's complement representation of the number. -This means that, for example ``~int256(0) == int256(-1)``. - -Shifts -^^^^^^ - -The result of a shift operation has the type of the left operand. The -expression ``x << y`` is equivalent to ``x * 2**y``, and, for positive integers, -``x >> y`` is equivalent to ``x / 2**y``. For negative ``x``, ``x >> y`` -is equivalent to dividing by a power of ``2`` while rounding down (towards negative infinity). -Shifting by a negative amount throws a runtime exception. - -.. warning:: - Before version ``0.5.0`` a right shift ``x >> y`` for negative ``x`` was equivalent to ``x / 2**y``, - i.e. right shifts used rounding towards zero instead of rounding towards negative infinity. - -Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -Addition, subtraction and multiplication have the usual semantics. -They wrap in two's complement representation, meaning that -for example ``uint256(0) - uint256(1) == 2**256 - 1``. You have to take these overflows -into account when designing safe smart contracts. - -The expression ``-x`` is equivalent to ``(T(0) - x)`` where -``T`` is the type of ``x``. This means that ``-x`` will not be negative -if the type of ``x`` is an unsigned integer type. Also, ``-x`` can be -positive if ``x`` is negative. There is another caveat also resulting -from two's complement representation:: - - int x = -2**255; - assert(-x == x); - -This means that even if a number is negative, you cannot assume that -its negation will be positive. - - -Division -^^^^^^^^ - -Since the type of the result of an operation is always the type of one of -the operands, division on integers always results in an integer. -In Solidity, division rounds towards zero. This mean that ``int256(-5) / int256(2) == int256(-2)``. - -Note that in contrast, division on :ref:`literals<rational_literals>` results in fractional values -of arbitrary precision. - -.. note:: - Division by zero causes a failing assert. - -Modulo -^^^^^^ - -The modulo operation ``a % n`` yields the remainder ``r`` after the division of the operand ``a`` -by the operand ``n``, where ``q = int(a / n)`` and ``r = a - (n * q)``. This means that modulo -results in the same sign as its left operand (or zero) and ``a % n == -(abs(a) % n)`` holds for negative ``a``: - - * ``int256(5) % int256(2) == int256(1)`` - * ``int256(5) % int256(-2) == int256(1)`` - * ``int256(-5) % int256(2) == int256(-1)`` - * ``int256(-5) % int256(-2) == int256(-1)`` - -.. note:: - Modulo with zero causes a failing assert. - -Exponentiation -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -Exponentiation is only available for unsigned types. Please take care that the types -you are using are large enough to hold the result and prepare for potential wrapping behaviour. - -.. note:: - Note that ``0**0`` is defined by the EVM as ``1``. - -.. index:: ! ufixed, ! fixed, ! fixed point number - -Fixed Point Numbers -------------------- - -.. warning:: - Fixed point numbers are not fully supported by Solidity yet. They can be declared, but - cannot be assigned to or from. - -``fixed`` / ``ufixed``: Signed and unsigned fixed point number of various sizes. Keywords ``ufixedMxN`` and ``fixedMxN``, where ``M`` represents the number of bits taken by -the type and ``N`` represents how many decimal points are available. ``M`` must be divisible by 8 and goes from 8 to 256 bits. ``N`` must be between 0 and 80, inclusive. -``ufixed`` and ``fixed`` are aliases for ``ufixed128x18`` and ``fixed128x18``, respectively. - -Operators: - -* Comparisons: ``<=``, ``<``, ``==``, ``!=``, ``>=``, ``>`` (evaluate to ``bool``) -* Arithmetic operators: ``+``, ``-``, unary ``-``, ``*``, ``/``, ``%`` (modulo) - -.. note:: - The main difference between floating point (``float`` and ``double`` in many languages, more precisely IEEE 754 numbers) and fixed point numbers is - that the number of bits used for the integer and the fractional part (the part after the decimal dot) is flexible in the former, while it is strictly - defined in the latter. Generally, in floating point almost the entire space is used to represent the number, while only a small number of bits define - where the decimal point is. - -.. index:: address, balance, send, call, callcode, delegatecall, staticcall, transfer - -.. _address: - -Address -------- - -The address type comes in two flavours, which are largely identical: - - - ``address``: Holds a 20 byte value (size of an Ethereum address). - - ``address payable``: Same as ``address``, but with the additional members ``transfer`` and ``send``. - -The idea behind this distinction is that ``address payable`` is an address you can send Ether to, -while a plain ``address`` cannot be sent Ether. - -Type conversions: - -Implicit conversions from ``address payable`` to ``address`` are allowed, whereas conversions from ``address`` to ``address payable`` are -not possible (the only way to perform such a conversion is by using an intermediate conversion to ``uint160``). - -:ref:`Address literals<address_literals>` can be implicitly converted to ``address payable``. - -Explicit conversions to and from ``address`` are allowed for integers, integer literals, ``bytes20`` and contract types with the following -caveat: -Conversions of the form ``address payable(x)`` are not allowed. Instead the result of a conversion of the form ``address(x)`` -has the type ``address payable``, if ``x`` is of integer or fixed bytes type, a literal or a contract with a payable fallback function. -If ``x`` is a contract without payable fallback function, then ``address(x)`` will be of type ``address``. -In external function signatures ``address`` is used for both the ``address`` and the ``address payable`` type. - -.. note:: - It might very well be that you do not need to care about the distinction between ``address`` - and ``address payable`` and just use ``address`` everywhere. For example, - if you are using the :ref:`withdrawal pattern<withdrawal_pattern>`, you can (and should) store the - address itself as ``address``, because you invoke the ``transfer`` function on - ``msg.sender``, which is an ``address payable``. - -Operators: - -* ``<=``, ``<``, ``==``, ``!=``, ``>=`` and ``>`` - -.. warning:: - If you convert a type that uses a larger byte size to an ``address``, for example ``bytes32``, then the ``address`` is truncated. - To reduce conversion ambiguity version 0.4.24 and higher of the compiler force you make the truncation explicit in the conversion. - Take for example the address ``0x111122223333444455556666777788889999AAAABBBBCCCCDDDDEEEEFFFFCCCC``. - - You can use ``address(uint160(bytes20(b)))``, which results in ``0x111122223333444455556666777788889999aAaa``, - or you can use ``address(uint160(uint256(b)))``, which results in ``0x777788889999AaAAbBbbCcccddDdeeeEfFFfCcCc``. - -.. note:: - The distinction between ``address`` and ``address payable`` was introduced with version 0.5.0. - Also starting from that version, contracts do not derive from the address type, but can still be explicitly converted to - ``address`` or to ``address payable``, if they have a payable fallback function. - -.. _members-of-addresses: - -Members of Addresses -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -For a quick reference of all members of address, see :ref:`address_related`. - -* ``balance`` and ``transfer`` - -It is possible to query the balance of an address using the property ``balance`` -and to send Ether (in units of wei) to a payable address using the ``transfer`` function: - -:: - - address payable x = address(0x123); - address myAddress = address(this); - if (x.balance < 10 && myAddress.balance >= 10) x.transfer(10); - -The ``transfer`` function fails if the balance of the current contract is not large enough -or if the Ether transfer is rejected by the receiving account. The ``transfer`` function -reverts on failure. - -.. note:: - If ``x`` is a contract address, its code (more specifically: its :ref:`fallback-function`, if present) will be executed together with the ``transfer`` call (this is a feature of the EVM and cannot be prevented). If that execution runs out of gas or fails in any way, the Ether transfer will be reverted and the current contract will stop with an exception. - -* ``send`` - -Send is the low-level counterpart of ``transfer``. If the execution fails, the current contract will not stop with an exception, but ``send`` will return ``false``. - -.. warning:: - There are some dangers in using ``send``: The transfer fails if the call stack depth is at 1024 - (this can always be forced by the caller) and it also fails if the recipient runs out of gas. So in order - to make safe Ether transfers, always check the return value of ``send``, use ``transfer`` or even better: - use a pattern where the recipient withdraws the money. - -* ``call``, ``delegatecall`` and ``staticcall`` - -In order to interface with contracts that do not adhere to the ABI, -or to get more direct control over the encoding, -the functions ``call``, ``delegatecall`` and ``staticcall`` are provided. -They all take a single ``bytes memory`` parameter and -return the success condition (as a ``bool``) and the returned data -(``bytes memory``). -The functions ``abi.encode``, ``abi.encodePacked``, ``abi.encodeWithSelector`` -and ``abi.encodeWithSignature`` can be used to encode structured data. - -Example:: - - bytes memory payload = abi.encodeWithSignature("register(string)", "MyName"); - (bool success, bytes memory returnData) = address(nameReg).call(payload); - require(success); - -.. warning:: - All these functions are low-level functions and should be used with care. - Specifically, any unknown contract might be malicious and if you call it, you - hand over control to that contract which could in turn call back into - your contract, so be prepared for changes to your state variables - when the call returns. The regular way to interact with other contracts - is to call a function on a contract object (``x.f()``). - -.. note:: - Previous versions of Solidity allowed these functions to receive - arbitrary arguments and would also handle a first argument of type - ``bytes4`` differently. These edge cases were removed in version 0.5.0. - -It is possible to adjust the supplied gas with the ``.gas()`` modifier:: - - address(nameReg).call.gas(1000000)(abi.encodeWithSignature("register(string)", "MyName")); - -Similarly, the supplied Ether value can be controlled too:: - - address(nameReg).call.value(1 ether)(abi.encodeWithSignature("register(string)", "MyName")); - -Lastly, these modifiers can be combined. Their order does not matter:: - - address(nameReg).call.gas(1000000).value(1 ether)(abi.encodeWithSignature("register(string)", "MyName")); - -In a similar way, the function ``delegatecall`` can be used: the difference is that only the code of the given address is used, all other aspects (storage, balance, ...) are taken from the current contract. The purpose of ``delegatecall`` is to use library code which is stored in another contract. The user has to ensure that the layout of storage in both contracts is suitable for delegatecall to be used. - -.. note:: - Prior to homestead, only a limited variant called ``callcode`` was available that did not provide access to the original ``msg.sender`` and ``msg.value`` values. This function was removed in version 0.5.0. - -Since byzantium ``staticcall`` can be used as well. This is basically the same as ``call``, but will revert if the called function modifies the state in any way. - -All three functions ``call``, ``delegatecall`` and ``staticcall`` are very low-level functions and should only be used as a *last resort* as they break the type-safety of Solidity. - -The ``.gas()`` option is available on all three methods, while the ``.value()`` option is not supported for ``delegatecall``. - -.. note:: - All contracts can be converted to ``address`` type, so it is possible to query the balance of the - current contract using ``address(this).balance``. - -.. index:: ! contract type, ! type; contract - -.. _contract_types: - -Contract Types --------------- - -Every :ref:`contract<contracts>` defines its own type. -You can implicitly convert contracts to contracts they inherit from. -Contracts can be explicitly converted to and from all other contract types -and the ``address`` type. - -Explicit conversion to and from the ``address payable`` type -is only possible if the contract type has a payable fallback function. -The conversion is still performed using ``address(x)`` and not -using ``address payable(x)``. You can find more information in the section about -the :ref:`address type<address>`. - -.. note:: - Before version 0.5.0, contracts directly derived from the address type - and there was no distinction between ``address`` and ``address payable``. - -If you declare a local variable of contract type (`MyContract c`), you can call -functions on that contract. Take care to assign it from somewhere that is the -same contract type. - -You can also instantiate contracts (which means they are newly created). You -can find more details in the :ref:`'Contracts via new'<creating-contracts>` -section. - -The data representation of a contract is identical to that of the ``address`` -type and this type is also used in the :ref:`ABI<ABI>`. - -Contracts do not support any operators. - -The members of contract types are the external functions of the contract -including public state variables. - -.. index:: byte array, bytes32 - -Fixed-size byte arrays ----------------------- - -The value types ``bytes1``, ``bytes2``, ``bytes3``, ..., ``bytes32`` -hold a sequence of bytes from one to up to 32. -``byte`` is an alias for ``bytes1``. - -Operators: - -* Comparisons: ``<=``, ``<``, ``==``, ``!=``, ``>=``, ``>`` (evaluate to ``bool``) -* Bit operators: ``&``, ``|``, ``^`` (bitwise exclusive or), ``~`` (bitwise negation) -* Shift operators: ``<<`` (left shift), ``>>`` (right shift) -* Index access: If ``x`` is of type ``bytesI``, then ``x[k]`` for ``0 <= k < I`` returns the ``k`` th byte (read-only). - -The shifting operator works with any integer type as right operand (but -returns the type of the left operand), which denotes the number of bits to shift by. -Shifting by a negative amount causes a runtime exception. - -Members: - -* ``.length`` yields the fixed length of the byte array (read-only). - -.. note:: - The type ``byte[]`` is an array of bytes, but due to padding rules, it wastes - 31 bytes of space for each element (except in storage). It is better to use the ``bytes`` - type instead. - -Dynamically-sized byte array ----------------------------- - -``bytes``: - Dynamically-sized byte array, see :ref:`arrays`. Not a value-type! -``string``: - Dynamically-sized UTF-8-encoded string, see :ref:`arrays`. Not a value-type! - -.. index:: address, literal;address - -.. _address_literals: - -Address Literals ----------------- - -Hexadecimal literals that pass the address checksum test, for example -``0xdCad3a6d3569DF655070DEd06cb7A1b2Ccd1D3AF`` are of ``address payable`` type. -Hexadecimal literals that are between 39 and 41 digits -long and do not pass the checksum test produce -a warning and are treated as regular rational number literals. - -.. note:: - The mixed-case address checksum format is defined in `EIP-55 <https://github.com/ethereum/EIPs/blob/master/EIPS/eip-55.md>`_. - -.. index:: literal, literal;rational - -.. _rational_literals: - -Rational and Integer Literals ------------------------------ - -Integer literals are formed from a sequence of numbers in the range 0-9. -They are interpreted as decimals. For example, ``69`` means sixty nine. -Octal literals do not exist in Solidity and leading zeros are invalid. - -Decimal fraction literals are formed by a ``.`` with at least one number on -one side. Examples include ``1.``, ``.1`` and ``1.3``. - -Scientific notation is also supported, where the base can have fractions, while the exponent cannot. -Examples include ``2e10``, ``-2e10``, ``2e-10``, ``2.5e1``. - -Underscores can be used to separate the digits of a numeric literal to aid readability. -For example, decimal ``123_000``, hexadecimal ``0x2eff_abde``, scientific decimal notation ``1_2e345_678`` are all valid. -Underscores are only allowed between two digits and only one consecutive underscore is allowed. -There is no additional semantic meaning added to a number literal containing underscores, -the underscores are ignored. - -Number literal expressions retain arbitrary precision until they are converted to a non-literal type (i.e. by -using them together with a non-literal expression or by explicit conversion). -This means that computations do not overflow and divisions do not truncate -in number literal expressions. - -For example, ``(2**800 + 1) - 2**800`` results in the constant ``1`` (of type ``uint8``) -although intermediate results would not even fit the machine word size. Furthermore, ``.5 * 8`` results -in the integer ``4`` (although non-integers were used in between). - -Any operator that can be applied to integers can also be applied to number literal expressions as -long as the operands are integers. If any of the two is fractional, bit operations are disallowed -and exponentiation is disallowed if the exponent is fractional (because that might result in -a non-rational number). - -.. note:: - Solidity has a number literal type for each rational number. - Integer literals and rational number literals belong to number literal types. - Moreover, all number literal expressions (i.e. the expressions that - contain only number literals and operators) belong to number literal - types. So the number literal expressions ``1 + 2`` and ``2 + 1`` both - belong to the same number literal type for the rational number three. - -.. warning:: - Division on integer literals used to truncate in Solidity prior to version 0.4.0, but it now converts into a rational number, i.e. ``5 / 2`` is not equal to ``2``, but to ``2.5``. - -.. note:: - Number literal expressions are converted into a non-literal type as soon as they are used with non-literal - expressions. Disregarding types, the value of the expression assigned to ``b`` - below evaluates to an integer. Because ``a`` is of type ``uint128``, the - expression ``2.5 + a`` has to have a proper type, though. Since there is no common type - for the type of ``2.5`` and ``uint128``, the Solidity compiler does not accept - this code. - -:: - - uint128 a = 1; - uint128 b = 2.5 + a + 0.5; - -.. index:: literal, literal;string, string -.. _string_literals: - -String Literals and Types -------------------------- - -String literals are written with either double or single-quotes (``"foo"`` or ``'bar'``). They do not imply trailing zeroes as in C; ``"foo"`` represents three bytes, not four. As with integer literals, their type can vary, but they are implicitly convertible to ``bytes1``, ..., ``bytes32``, if they fit, to ``bytes`` and to ``string``. - -For example, with ``bytes32 samevar = "stringliteral"`` the string literal is interpreted in its raw byte form when assigned to a ``bytes32`` type. - -String literals support the following escape characters: - - - ``\<newline>`` (escapes an actual newline) - - ``\\`` (backslash) - - ``\'`` (single quote) - - ``\"`` (double quote) - - ``\b`` (backspace) - - ``\f`` (form feed) - - ``\n`` (newline) - - ``\r`` (carriage return) - - ``\t`` (tab) - - ``\v`` (vertical tab) - - ``\xNN`` (hex escape, see below) - - ``\uNNNN`` (unicode escape, see below) - -``\xNN`` takes a hex value and inserts the appropriate byte, while ``\uNNNN`` takes a Unicode codepoint and inserts an UTF-8 sequence. - -The string in the following example has a length of ten bytes. -It starts with a newline byte, followed by a double quote, a single -quote a backslash character and then (without separator) the -character sequence ``abcdef``. - -:: - - "\n\"\'\\abc\ - def" - -Any unicode line terminator which is not a newline (i.e. LF, VF, FF, CR, NEL, LS, PS) is considered to -terminate the string literal. Newline only terminates the string literal if it is not preceded by a ``\``. - -.. index:: literal, bytes - -Hexadecimal Literals --------------------- - -Hexadecimal literals are prefixed with the keyword ``hex`` and are enclosed in double or single-quotes (``hex"001122FF"``). Their content must be a hexadecimal string and their value will be the binary representation of those values. - -Hexadecimal literals behave like :ref:`string literals <string_literals>` and have the same convertibility restrictions. - -.. index:: enum - -.. _enums: - -Enums ------ - -Enums are one way to create a user-defined type in Solidity. They are explicitly convertible -to and from all integer types but implicit conversion is not allowed. The explicit conversion -from integer checks at runtime that the value lies inside the range of the enum and causes a failing assert otherwise. -Enums needs at least one member. - -The data representation is the same as for enums in C: The options are represented by -subsequent unsigned integer values starting from ``0``. - - -:: - - pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; - - contract test { - enum ActionChoices { GoLeft, GoRight, GoStraight, SitStill } - ActionChoices choice; - ActionChoices constant defaultChoice = ActionChoices.GoStraight; - - function setGoStraight() public { - choice = ActionChoices.GoStraight; - } - - // Since enum types are not part of the ABI, the signature of "getChoice" - // will automatically be changed to "getChoice() returns (uint8)" - // for all matters external to Solidity. The integer type used is just - // large enough to hold all enum values, i.e. if you have more than 256 values, - // `uint16` will be used and so on. - function getChoice() public view returns (ActionChoices) { - return choice; - } - - function getDefaultChoice() public pure returns (uint) { - return uint(defaultChoice); - } - } - -.. index:: ! function type, ! type; function - -.. _function_types: - -Function Types --------------- - -Function types are the types of functions. Variables of function type -can be assigned from functions and function parameters of function type -can be used to pass functions to and return functions from function calls. -Function types come in two flavours - *internal* and *external* functions: - -Internal functions can only be called inside the current contract (more specifically, -inside the current code unit, which also includes internal library functions -and inherited functions) because they cannot be executed outside of the -context of the current contract. Calling an internal function is realized -by jumping to its entry label, just like when calling a function of the current -contract internally. - -External functions consist of an address and a function signature and they can -be passed via and returned from external function calls. - -Function types are notated as follows:: - - function (<parameter types>) {internal|external} [pure|view|payable] [returns (<return types>)] - -In contrast to the parameter types, the return types cannot be empty - if the -function type should not return anything, the whole ``returns (<return types>)`` -part has to be omitted. - -By default, function types are internal, so the ``internal`` keyword can be -omitted. Note that this only applies to function types. Visibility has -to be specified explicitly for functions defined in contracts, they -do not have a default. - -Conversions: - -A value of external function type can be explicitly converted to ``address`` -resulting in the address of the contract of the function. - -A function type ``A`` is implicitly convertible to a function type ``B`` if and only if -their parameter types are identical, their return types are identical, -their internal/external property is identical and the state mutability of ``A`` -is not more restrictive than the state mutability of ``B``. In particular: - - - ``pure`` functions can be converted to ``view`` and ``non-payable`` functions - - ``view`` functions can be converted to ``non-payable`` functions - - ``payable`` functions can be converted to ``non-payable`` functions - -No other conversions between function types are possible. - -The rule about ``payable`` and ``non-payable`` might be a little -confusing, but in essence, if a function is ``payable``, this means that it -also accepts a payment of zero Ether, so it also is ``non-payable``. -On the other hand, a ``non-payable`` function will reject Ether sent to it, -so ``non-payable`` functions cannot be converted to ``payable`` functions. - -If a function type variable is not initialised, calling it results -in a failed assertion. The same happens if you call a function after using ``delete`` -on it. - -If external function types are used outside of the context of Solidity, -they are treated as the ``function`` type, which encodes the address -followed by the function identifier together in a single ``bytes24`` type. - -Note that public functions of the current contract can be used both as an -internal and as an external function. To use ``f`` as an internal function, -just use ``f``, if you want to use its external form, use ``this.f``. - -Members: - -Public (or external) functions also have a special member called ``selector``, -which returns the :ref:`ABI function selector <abi_function_selector>`:: - - pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; - - contract Selector { - function f() public pure returns (bytes4) { - return this.f.selector; - } - } - -Example that shows how to use internal function types:: - - pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; - - library ArrayUtils { - // internal functions can be used in internal library functions because - // they will be part of the same code context - function map(uint[] memory self, function (uint) pure returns (uint) f) - internal - pure - returns (uint[] memory r) - { - r = new uint[](self.length); - for (uint i = 0; i < self.length; i++) { - r[i] = f(self[i]); - } - } - function reduce( - uint[] memory self, - function (uint, uint) pure returns (uint) f - ) - internal - pure - returns (uint r) - { - r = self[0]; - for (uint i = 1; i < self.length; i++) { - r = f(r, self[i]); - } - } - function range(uint length) internal pure returns (uint[] memory r) { - r = new uint[](length); - for (uint i = 0; i < r.length; i++) { - r[i] = i; - } - } - } - - contract Pyramid { - using ArrayUtils for *; - function pyramid(uint l) public pure returns (uint) { - return ArrayUtils.range(l).map(square).reduce(sum); - } - function square(uint x) internal pure returns (uint) { - return x * x; - } - function sum(uint x, uint y) internal pure returns (uint) { - return x + y; - } - } - -Another example that uses external function types:: - - pragma solidity >=0.4.22 <0.6.0; - - contract Oracle { - struct Request { - bytes data; - function(uint) external callback; - } - Request[] requests; - event NewRequest(uint); - function query(bytes memory data, function(uint) external callback) public { - requests.push(Request(data, callback)); - emit NewRequest(requests.length - 1); - } - function reply(uint requestID, uint response) public { - // Here goes the check that the reply comes from a trusted source - requests[requestID].callback(response); - } - } - - contract OracleUser { - Oracle constant oracle = Oracle(0x1234567); // known contract - uint exchangeRate; - function buySomething() public { - oracle.query("USD", this.oracleResponse); - } - function oracleResponse(uint response) public { - require( - msg.sender == address(oracle), - "Only oracle can call this." - ); - exchangeRate = response; - } - } - -.. note:: - Lambda or inline functions are planned but not yet supported. - -.. index:: ! type;reference, ! reference type, storage, memory, location, array, struct - -.. _reference-types: - -Reference Types -=============== - -Values of reference type can be modified through multiple different names. -Contrast this with value types where you get an independent copy whenever -a variable of value type is used. Because of that, reference types have to be handled -more carefully than value types. Currently, reference types comprise structs, -arrays and mappings. If you use a reference type, you always have to explicitly -provide the data area where the type is stored: ``memory`` (whose lifetime is limited -to a function call), ``storage`` (the location where the state variables are stored) -or ``calldata`` (special data location that contains the function arguments, -only available for external function call parameters). - -An assignment or type conversion that changes the data location will always incur an automatic copy operation, -while assignments inside the same data location only copy in some cases for storage types. - -.. _data-location: - -Data location -------------- - -Every reference type, i.e. *arrays* and *structs*, has an additional -annotation, the "data location", about where it is stored. There are three data locations: -``memory``, ``storage`` and ``calldata``. Calldata is only valid for parameters of external contract -functions and is required for this type of parameter. Calldata is a non-modifiable, -non-persistent area where function arguments are stored, and behaves mostly like memory. - - -.. note:: - Prior to version 0.5.0 the data location could be omitted, and would default to different locations - depending on the kind of variable, function type, etc., but all complex types must now give an explicit - data location. - -.. _data-location-assignment: - -Data location and assignment behaviour -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -Data locations are not only relevant for persistency of data, but also for the semantics of assignments: - -* Assignments between ``storage`` and ``memory`` (or from ``calldata``) always create an independent copy. -* Assignments from ``memory`` to ``memory`` only create references. This means that changes to one memory variable are also visible in all other memory variables that refer to the same data. -* Assignments from ``storage`` to a local storage variable also only assign a reference. -* All other assignments to ``storage`` always copy. Examples for this case are assignments to state variables or to members of local variables of storage struct type, even if the local variable itself is just a reference. - -:: - - pragma solidity >=0.4.0 <0.6.0; - - contract C { - uint[] x; // the data location of x is storage - - // the data location of memoryArray is memory - function f(uint[] memory memoryArray) public { - x = memoryArray; // works, copies the whole array to storage - uint[] storage y = x; // works, assigns a pointer, data location of y is storage - y[7]; // fine, returns the 8th element - y.length = 2; // fine, modifies x through y - delete x; // fine, clears the array, also modifies y - // The following does not work; it would need to create a new temporary / - // unnamed array in storage, but storage is "statically" allocated: - // y = memoryArray; - // This does not work either, since it would "reset" the pointer, but there - // is no sensible location it could point to. - // delete y; - g(x); // calls g, handing over a reference to x - h(x); // calls h and creates an independent, temporary copy in memory - } - - function g(uint[] storage) internal pure {} - function h(uint[] memory) public pure {} - } - -.. index:: ! array - -.. _arrays: - -Arrays ------- - -Arrays can have a compile-time fixed size, or they can have a dynamic size. - -The type of an array of fixed size ``k`` and element type ``T`` is written as ``T[k]``, -and an array of dynamic size as ``T[]``. - -For example, an array of 5 dynamic arrays of ``uint`` is written as -``uint[][5]``. The notation is reversed compared to some other languages. In -Solidity, ``X[3]`` is always an array containing three elements of type ``X``, -even if ``X`` is itself an array. This is not the case in other languages such -as C. - -Indices are zero-based, and access is in the opposite direction of the -declaration. - -For example, if you have a variable ``uint[][5] x memory``, you access the -second ``uint`` in the third dynamic array using ``x[2][1]``, and to access the -third dynamic array, use ``x[2]``. Again, -if you have an array ``T[5] a`` for a type ``T`` that can also be an array, -then ``a[2]`` always has type ``T``. - -Array elements can be of any type, including mapping or struct. The general -restrictions for types apply, in that mappings can only be stored in the -``storage`` data location and publicly-visible functions need parameters that are :ref:`ABI types <ABI>`. - -Accessing an array past its end causes a failing assertion. You can use the ``.push()`` method to append a new element at the end or assign to the ``.length`` :ref:`member <array-members>` to change the size (see below for caveats). -method or increase the ``.length`` :ref:`member <array-members>` to add elements. - -Variables of type ``bytes`` and ``string`` are special arrays. A ``bytes`` is similar to ``byte[]``, -but it is packed tightly in calldata and memory. ``string`` is equal to ``bytes`` but does not allow -length or index access. - -You should use ``bytes`` over ``byte[]`` because it is cheaper, since ``byte[]`` adds 31 padding bytes between the elements. As a general rule, -use ``bytes`` for arbitrary-length raw byte data and ``string`` for arbitrary-length -string (UTF-8) data. If you can limit the length to a certain number of bytes, -always use one of the value types ``bytes1`` to ``bytes32`` because they are much cheaper. - -.. note:: - If you want to access the byte-representation of a string ``s``, use - ``bytes(s).length`` / ``bytes(s)[7] = 'x';``. Keep in mind - that you are accessing the low-level bytes of the UTF-8 representation, - and not the individual characters. - -It is possible to mark arrays ``public`` and have Solidity create a :ref:`getter <visibility-and-getters>`. -The numeric index becomes a required parameter for the getter. - -.. index:: ! array;allocating, new - -Allocating Memory Arrays -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -You can use the ``new`` keyword to create arrays with a runtime-dependent length in memory. -As opposed to storage arrays, it is **not** possible to resize memory arrays (e.g. by assigning to -the ``.length`` member). You either have to calculate the required size in advance -or create a new memory array and copy every element. - -:: - - pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; - - contract C { - function f(uint len) public pure { - uint[] memory a = new uint[](7); - bytes memory b = new bytes(len); - assert(a.length == 7); - assert(b.length == len); - a[6] = 8; - } - } - -.. index:: ! array;literals, ! inline;arrays - -Array Literals -^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -An array literal is a comma-separated list of one or more expressions, enclosed -in square brackets (``[...]``). For example ``[1, a, f(3)]``. There must be a -common type all elements can be implicitly converted to. This is the elementary -type of the array. - -Array literals are always statically-sized memory arrays. - -In the example below, the type of ``[1, 2, 3]`` is -``uint8[3] memory``. Because the type of each of these constants is ``uint8``, if you want the result to be a ``uint[3] memory`` type, you need to convert the first element to ``uint``. - -:: - - pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; - - contract C { - function f() public pure { - g([uint(1), 2, 3]); - } - function g(uint[3] memory) public pure { - // ... - } - } - -Fixed size memory arrays cannot be assigned to dynamically-sized memory arrays, i.e. the following is not possible: - -:: - - pragma solidity >=0.4.0 <0.6.0; - - // This will not compile. - contract C { - function f() public { - // The next line creates a type error because uint[3] memory - // cannot be converted to uint[] memory. - uint[] memory x = [uint(1), 3, 4]; - } - } - -It is planned to remove this restriction in the future, but it creates some -complications because of how arrays are passed in the ABI. - -.. index:: ! array;length, length, push, pop, !array;push, !array;pop - -.. _array-members: - -Array Members -^^^^^^^^^^^^^ - -**length**: - Arrays have a ``length`` member that contains their number of elements. - The length of memory arrays is fixed (but dynamic, i.e. it can depend on runtime parameters) once they are created. - For dynamically-sized arrays (only available for storage), this member can be assigned to resize the array. - Accessing elements outside the current length does not automatically resize the array and instead causes a failing assertion. - Increasing the length adds new zero-initialised elements to the array. - Reducing the length performs an implicit :ref:``delete`` on each of the - removed elements. If you try to resize a non-dynamic array that isn't in - storage, you receive a ``Value must be an lvalue`` error. -**push**: - Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member function called ``push`` that you can use to append an element at the end of the array. The element will be zero-initialised. The function returns the new length. -**pop**: - Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member function called ``pop`` that you can use to remove an element from the end of the array. This also implicitly calls :ref:``delete`` on the removed element. - -.. warning:: - If you use ``.length--`` on an empty array, it causes an underflow and - thus sets the length to ``2**256-1``. - -.. note:: - Increasing the length of a storage array has constant gas costs because - storage is assumed to be zero-initialised, while decreasing - the length has at least linear cost (but in most cases worse than linear), - because it includes explicitly clearing the removed - elements similar to calling :ref:``delete`` on them. - -.. note:: - It is not yet possible to use arrays of arrays in external functions - (but they are supported in public functions). - -.. note:: - In EVM versions before Byzantium, it was not possible to access - dynamic arrays return from function calls. If you call functions - that return dynamic arrays, make sure to use an EVM that is set to - Byzantium mode. - -:: - - pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; - - contract ArrayContract { - uint[2**20] m_aLotOfIntegers; - // Note that the following is not a pair of dynamic arrays but a - // dynamic array of pairs (i.e. of fixed size arrays of length two). - // Because of that, T[] is always a dynamic array of T, even if T - // itself is an array. - // Data location for all state variables is storage. - bool[2][] m_pairsOfFlags; - - // newPairs is stored in memory - the only possibility - // for public contract function arguments - function setAllFlagPairs(bool[2][] memory newPairs) public { - // assignment to a storage array performs a copy of ``newPairs`` and - // replaces the complete array ``m_pairsOfFlags``. - m_pairsOfFlags = newPairs; - } - - struct StructType { - uint[] contents; - uint moreInfo; - } - StructType s; - - function f(uint[] memory c) public { - // stores a reference to ``s`` in ``g`` - StructType storage g = s; - // also changes ``s.moreInfo``. - g.moreInfo = 2; - // assigns a copy because ``g.contents`` - // is not a local variable, but a member of - // a local variable. - g.contents = c; - } - - function setFlagPair(uint index, bool flagA, bool flagB) public { - // access to a non-existing index will throw an exception - m_pairsOfFlags[index][0] = flagA; - m_pairsOfFlags[index][1] = flagB; - } - - function changeFlagArraySize(uint newSize) public { - // if the new size is smaller, removed array elements will be cleared - m_pairsOfFlags.length = newSize; - } - - function clear() public { - // these clear the arrays completely - delete m_pairsOfFlags; - delete m_aLotOfIntegers; - // identical effect here - m_pairsOfFlags.length = 0; - } - - bytes m_byteData; - - function byteArrays(bytes memory data) public { - // byte arrays ("bytes") are different as they are stored without padding, - // but can be treated identical to "uint8[]" - m_byteData = data; - m_byteData.length += 7; - m_byteData[3] = 0x08; - delete m_byteData[2]; - } - - function addFlag(bool[2] memory flag) public returns (uint) { - return m_pairsOfFlags.push(flag); - } - - function createMemoryArray(uint size) public pure returns (bytes memory) { - // Dynamic memory arrays are created using `new`: - uint[2][] memory arrayOfPairs = new uint[2][](size); - - // Inline arrays are always statically-sized and if you only - // use literals, you have to provide at least one type. - arrayOfPairs[0] = [uint(1), 2]; - - // Create a dynamic byte array: - bytes memory b = new bytes(200); - for (uint i = 0; i < b.length; i++) - b[i] = byte(uint8(i)); - return b; - } - } - - -.. index:: ! struct, ! type;struct - -.. _structs: - -Structs -------- - -Solidity provides a way to define new types in the form of structs, which is -shown in the following example: - -:: - - pragma solidity >=0.4.11 <0.6.0; - - contract CrowdFunding { - // Defines a new type with two fields. - struct Funder { - address addr; - uint amount; - } - - struct Campaign { - address payable beneficiary; - uint fundingGoal; - uint numFunders; - uint amount; - mapping (uint => Funder) funders; - } - - uint numCampaigns; - mapping (uint => Campaign) campaigns; - - function newCampaign(address payable beneficiary, uint goal) public returns (uint campaignID) { - campaignID = numCampaigns++; // campaignID is return variable - // Creates new struct in memory and copies it to storage. - // We leave out the mapping type, because it is not valid in memory. - // If structs are copied (even from storage to storage), mapping types - // are always omitted, because they cannot be enumerated. - campaigns[campaignID] = Campaign(beneficiary, goal, 0, 0); - } - - function contribute(uint campaignID) public payable { - Campaign storage c = campaigns[campaignID]; - // Creates a new temporary memory struct, initialised with the given values - // and copies it over to storage. - // Note that you can also use Funder(msg.sender, msg.value) to initialise. - c.funders[c.numFunders++] = Funder({addr: msg.sender, amount: msg.value}); - c.amount += msg.value; - } - - function checkGoalReached(uint campaignID) public returns (bool reached) { - Campaign storage c = campaigns[campaignID]; - if (c.amount < c.fundingGoal) - return false; - uint amount = c.amount; - c.amount = 0; - c.beneficiary.transfer(amount); - return true; - } - } - -The contract does not provide the full functionality of a crowdfunding -contract, but it contains the basic concepts necessary to understand structs. -Struct types can be used inside mappings and arrays and they can itself -contain mappings and arrays. - -It is not possible for a struct to contain a member of its own type, -although the struct itself can be the value type of a mapping member -or it can contain a dynamically-sized array of its type. -This restriction is necessary, as the size of the struct has to be finite. - -Note how in all the functions, a struct type is assigned to a local variable -with data location ``storage``. -This does not copy the struct but only stores a reference so that assignments to -members of the local variable actually write to the state. - -Of course, you can also directly access the members of the struct without -assigning it to a local variable, as in -``campaigns[campaignID].amount = 0``. +.. include:: types/reference-types.rst .. index:: !mapping .. _mapping-types: diff --git a/docs/types/reference-types.rst b/docs/types/reference-types.rst new file mode 100644 index 00000000..b133bdf1 --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/types/reference-types.rst @@ -0,0 +1,409 @@ +.. index:: ! type;reference, ! reference type, storage, memory, location, array, struct + +.. _reference-types: + +Reference Types +=============== + +Values of reference type can be modified through multiple different names. +Contrast this with value types where you get an independent copy whenever +a variable of value type is used. Because of that, reference types have to be handled +more carefully than value types. Currently, reference types comprise structs, +arrays and mappings. If you use a reference type, you always have to explicitly +provide the data area where the type is stored: ``memory`` (whose lifetime is limited +to a function call), ``storage`` (the location where the state variables are stored) +or ``calldata`` (special data location that contains the function arguments, +only available for external function call parameters). + +An assignment or type conversion that changes the data location will always incur an automatic copy operation, +while assignments inside the same data location only copy in some cases for storage types. + +.. _data-location: + +Data location +------------- + +Every reference type, i.e. *arrays* and *structs*, has an additional +annotation, the "data location", about where it is stored. There are three data locations: +``memory``, ``storage`` and ``calldata``. Calldata is only valid for parameters of external contract +functions and is required for this type of parameter. Calldata is a non-modifiable, +non-persistent area where function arguments are stored, and behaves mostly like memory. + + +.. note:: + Prior to version 0.5.0 the data location could be omitted, and would default to different locations + depending on the kind of variable, function type, etc., but all complex types must now give an explicit + data location. + +.. _data-location-assignment: + +Data location and assignment behaviour +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +Data locations are not only relevant for persistency of data, but also for the semantics of assignments: + +* Assignments between ``storage`` and ``memory`` (or from ``calldata``) always create an independent copy. +* Assignments from ``memory`` to ``memory`` only create references. This means that changes to one memory variable are also visible in all other memory variables that refer to the same data. +* Assignments from ``storage`` to a local storage variable also only assign a reference. +* All other assignments to ``storage`` always copy. Examples for this case are assignments to state variables or to members of local variables of storage struct type, even if the local variable itself is just a reference. + +:: + + pragma solidity >=0.4.0 <0.6.0; + + contract C { + uint[] x; // the data location of x is storage + + // the data location of memoryArray is memory + function f(uint[] memory memoryArray) public { + x = memoryArray; // works, copies the whole array to storage + uint[] storage y = x; // works, assigns a pointer, data location of y is storage + y[7]; // fine, returns the 8th element + y.length = 2; // fine, modifies x through y + delete x; // fine, clears the array, also modifies y + // The following does not work; it would need to create a new temporary / + // unnamed array in storage, but storage is "statically" allocated: + // y = memoryArray; + // This does not work either, since it would "reset" the pointer, but there + // is no sensible location it could point to. + // delete y; + g(x); // calls g, handing over a reference to x + h(x); // calls h and creates an independent, temporary copy in memory + } + + function g(uint[] storage) internal pure {} + function h(uint[] memory) public pure {} + } + +.. index:: ! array + +.. _arrays: + +Arrays +------ + +Arrays can have a compile-time fixed size, or they can have a dynamic size. + +The type of an array of fixed size ``k`` and element type ``T`` is written as ``T[k]``, +and an array of dynamic size as ``T[]``. + +For example, an array of 5 dynamic arrays of ``uint`` is written as +``uint[][5]``. The notation is reversed compared to some other languages. In +Solidity, ``X[3]`` is always an array containing three elements of type ``X``, +even if ``X`` is itself an array. This is not the case in other languages such +as C. + +Indices are zero-based, and access is in the opposite direction of the +declaration. + +For example, if you have a variable ``uint[][5] x memory``, you access the +second ``uint`` in the third dynamic array using ``x[2][1]``, and to access the +third dynamic array, use ``x[2]``. Again, +if you have an array ``T[5] a`` for a type ``T`` that can also be an array, +then ``a[2]`` always has type ``T``. + +Array elements can be of any type, including mapping or struct. The general +restrictions for types apply, in that mappings can only be stored in the +``storage`` data location and publicly-visible functions need parameters that are :ref:`ABI types <ABI>`. + +Accessing an array past its end causes a failing assertion. You can use the ``.push()`` method to append a new element at the end or assign to the ``.length`` :ref:`member <array-members>` to change the size (see below for caveats). +method or increase the ``.length`` :ref:`member <array-members>` to add elements. + +Variables of type ``bytes`` and ``string`` are special arrays. A ``bytes`` is similar to ``byte[]``, +but it is packed tightly in calldata and memory. ``string`` is equal to ``bytes`` but does not allow +length or index access. + +You should use ``bytes`` over ``byte[]`` because it is cheaper, since ``byte[]`` adds 31 padding bytes between the elements. As a general rule, +use ``bytes`` for arbitrary-length raw byte data and ``string`` for arbitrary-length +string (UTF-8) data. If you can limit the length to a certain number of bytes, +always use one of the value types ``bytes1`` to ``bytes32`` because they are much cheaper. + +.. note:: + If you want to access the byte-representation of a string ``s``, use + ``bytes(s).length`` / ``bytes(s)[7] = 'x';``. Keep in mind + that you are accessing the low-level bytes of the UTF-8 representation, + and not the individual characters. + +It is possible to mark arrays ``public`` and have Solidity create a :ref:`getter <visibility-and-getters>`. +The numeric index becomes a required parameter for the getter. + +.. index:: ! array;allocating, new + +Allocating Memory Arrays +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +You can use the ``new`` keyword to create arrays with a runtime-dependent length in memory. +As opposed to storage arrays, it is **not** possible to resize memory arrays (e.g. by assigning to +the ``.length`` member). You either have to calculate the required size in advance +or create a new memory array and copy every element. + +:: + + pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; + + contract C { + function f(uint len) public pure { + uint[] memory a = new uint[](7); + bytes memory b = new bytes(len); + assert(a.length == 7); + assert(b.length == len); + a[6] = 8; + } + } + +.. index:: ! array;literals, ! inline;arrays + +Array Literals +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +An array literal is a comma-separated list of one or more expressions, enclosed +in square brackets (``[...]``). For example ``[1, a, f(3)]``. There must be a +common type all elements can be implicitly converted to. This is the elementary +type of the array. + +Array literals are always statically-sized memory arrays. + +In the example below, the type of ``[1, 2, 3]`` is +``uint8[3] memory``. Because the type of each of these constants is ``uint8``, if you want the result to be a ``uint[3] memory`` type, you need to convert the first element to ``uint``. + +:: + + pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; + + contract C { + function f() public pure { + g([uint(1), 2, 3]); + } + function g(uint[3] memory) public pure { + // ... + } + } + +Fixed size memory arrays cannot be assigned to dynamically-sized memory arrays, i.e. the following is not possible: + +:: + + pragma solidity >=0.4.0 <0.6.0; + + // This will not compile. + contract C { + function f() public { + // The next line creates a type error because uint[3] memory + // cannot be converted to uint[] memory. + uint[] memory x = [uint(1), 3, 4]; + } + } + +It is planned to remove this restriction in the future, but it creates some +complications because of how arrays are passed in the ABI. + +.. index:: ! array;length, length, push, pop, !array;push, !array;pop + +.. _array-members: + +Array Members +^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +**length**: + Arrays have a ``length`` member that contains their number of elements. + The length of memory arrays is fixed (but dynamic, i.e. it can depend on runtime parameters) once they are created. + For dynamically-sized arrays (only available for storage), this member can be assigned to resize the array. + Accessing elements outside the current length does not automatically resize the array and instead causes a failing assertion. + Increasing the length adds new zero-initialised elements to the array. + Reducing the length performs an implicit :ref:``delete`` on each of the + removed elements. If you try to resize a non-dynamic array that isn't in + storage, you receive a ``Value must be an lvalue`` error. +**push**: + Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member function called ``push`` that you can use to append an element at the end of the array. The element will be zero-initialised. The function returns the new length. +**pop**: + Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member function called ``pop`` that you can use to remove an element from the end of the array. This also implicitly calls :ref:``delete`` on the removed element. + +.. warning:: + If you use ``.length--`` on an empty array, it causes an underflow and + thus sets the length to ``2**256-1``. + +.. note:: + Increasing the length of a storage array has constant gas costs because + storage is assumed to be zero-initialised, while decreasing + the length has at least linear cost (but in most cases worse than linear), + because it includes explicitly clearing the removed + elements similar to calling :ref:``delete`` on them. + +.. note:: + It is not yet possible to use arrays of arrays in external functions + (but they are supported in public functions). + +.. note:: + In EVM versions before Byzantium, it was not possible to access + dynamic arrays return from function calls. If you call functions + that return dynamic arrays, make sure to use an EVM that is set to + Byzantium mode. + +:: + + pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; + + contract ArrayContract { + uint[2**20] m_aLotOfIntegers; + // Note that the following is not a pair of dynamic arrays but a + // dynamic array of pairs (i.e. of fixed size arrays of length two). + // Because of that, T[] is always a dynamic array of T, even if T + // itself is an array. + // Data location for all state variables is storage. + bool[2][] m_pairsOfFlags; + + // newPairs is stored in memory - the only possibility + // for public contract function arguments + function setAllFlagPairs(bool[2][] memory newPairs) public { + // assignment to a storage array performs a copy of ``newPairs`` and + // replaces the complete array ``m_pairsOfFlags``. + m_pairsOfFlags = newPairs; + } + + struct StructType { + uint[] contents; + uint moreInfo; + } + StructType s; + + function f(uint[] memory c) public { + // stores a reference to ``s`` in ``g`` + StructType storage g = s; + // also changes ``s.moreInfo``. + g.moreInfo = 2; + // assigns a copy because ``g.contents`` + // is not a local variable, but a member of + // a local variable. + g.contents = c; + } + + function setFlagPair(uint index, bool flagA, bool flagB) public { + // access to a non-existing index will throw an exception + m_pairsOfFlags[index][0] = flagA; + m_pairsOfFlags[index][1] = flagB; + } + + function changeFlagArraySize(uint newSize) public { + // if the new size is smaller, removed array elements will be cleared + m_pairsOfFlags.length = newSize; + } + + function clear() public { + // these clear the arrays completely + delete m_pairsOfFlags; + delete m_aLotOfIntegers; + // identical effect here + m_pairsOfFlags.length = 0; + } + + bytes m_byteData; + + function byteArrays(bytes memory data) public { + // byte arrays ("bytes") are different as they are stored without padding, + // but can be treated identical to "uint8[]" + m_byteData = data; + m_byteData.length += 7; + m_byteData[3] = 0x08; + delete m_byteData[2]; + } + + function addFlag(bool[2] memory flag) public returns (uint) { + return m_pairsOfFlags.push(flag); + } + + function createMemoryArray(uint size) public pure returns (bytes memory) { + // Dynamic memory arrays are created using `new`: + uint[2][] memory arrayOfPairs = new uint[2][](size); + + // Inline arrays are always statically-sized and if you only + // use literals, you have to provide at least one type. + arrayOfPairs[0] = [uint(1), 2]; + + // Create a dynamic byte array: + bytes memory b = new bytes(200); + for (uint i = 0; i < b.length; i++) + b[i] = byte(uint8(i)); + return b; + } + } + + +.. index:: ! struct, ! type;struct + +.. _structs: + +Structs +------- + +Solidity provides a way to define new types in the form of structs, which is +shown in the following example: + +:: + + pragma solidity >=0.4.11 <0.6.0; + + contract CrowdFunding { + // Defines a new type with two fields. + struct Funder { + address addr; + uint amount; + } + + struct Campaign { + address payable beneficiary; + uint fundingGoal; + uint numFunders; + uint amount; + mapping (uint => Funder) funders; + } + + uint numCampaigns; + mapping (uint => Campaign) campaigns; + + function newCampaign(address payable beneficiary, uint goal) public returns (uint campaignID) { + campaignID = numCampaigns++; // campaignID is return variable + // Creates new struct in memory and copies it to storage. + // We leave out the mapping type, because it is not valid in memory. + // If structs are copied (even from storage to storage), mapping types + // are always omitted, because they cannot be enumerated. + campaigns[campaignID] = Campaign(beneficiary, goal, 0, 0); + } + + function contribute(uint campaignID) public payable { + Campaign storage c = campaigns[campaignID]; + // Creates a new temporary memory struct, initialised with the given values + // and copies it over to storage. + // Note that you can also use Funder(msg.sender, msg.value) to initialise. + c.funders[c.numFunders++] = Funder({addr: msg.sender, amount: msg.value}); + c.amount += msg.value; + } + + function checkGoalReached(uint campaignID) public returns (bool reached) { + Campaign storage c = campaigns[campaignID]; + if (c.amount < c.fundingGoal) + return false; + uint amount = c.amount; + c.amount = 0; + c.beneficiary.transfer(amount); + return true; + } + } + +The contract does not provide the full functionality of a crowdfunding +contract, but it contains the basic concepts necessary to understand structs. +Struct types can be used inside mappings and arrays and they can itself +contain mappings and arrays. + +It is not possible for a struct to contain a member of its own type, +although the struct itself can be the value type of a mapping member +or it can contain a dynamically-sized array of its type. +This restriction is necessary, as the size of the struct has to be finite. + +Note how in all the functions, a struct type is assigned to a local variable +with data location ``storage``. +This does not copy the struct but only stores a reference so that assignments to +members of the local variable actually write to the state. + +Of course, you can also directly access the members of the struct without +assigning it to a local variable, as in +``campaigns[campaignID].amount = 0``. diff --git a/docs/types/value-types.rst b/docs/types/value-types.rst new file mode 100644 index 00000000..077587dd --- /dev/null +++ b/docs/types/value-types.rst @@ -0,0 +1,708 @@ +.. index:: ! value type, ! type;value +.. _value-types: + +Value Types +=========== + +The following types are also called value types because variables of these +types will always be passed by value, i.e. they are always copied when they +are used as function arguments or in assignments. + +.. index:: ! bool, ! true, ! false + +Booleans +-------- + +``bool``: The possible values are constants ``true`` and ``false``. + +Operators: + +* ``!`` (logical negation) +* ``&&`` (logical conjunction, "and") +* ``||`` (logical disjunction, "or") +* ``==`` (equality) +* ``!=`` (inequality) + +The operators ``||`` and ``&&`` apply the common short-circuiting rules. This means that in the expression ``f(x) || g(y)``, if ``f(x)`` evaluates to ``true``, ``g(y)`` will not be evaluated even if it may have side-effects. + +.. index:: ! uint, ! int, ! integer + +Integers +-------- + +``int`` / ``uint``: Signed and unsigned integers of various sizes. Keywords ``uint8`` to ``uint256`` in steps of ``8`` (unsigned of 8 up to 256 bits) and ``int8`` to ``int256``. ``uint`` and ``int`` are aliases for ``uint256`` and ``int256``, respectively. + +Operators: + +* Comparisons: ``<=``, ``<``, ``==``, ``!=``, ``>=``, ``>`` (evaluate to ``bool``) +* Bit operators: ``&``, ``|``, ``^`` (bitwise exclusive or), ``~`` (bitwise negation) +* Shift operators: ``<<`` (left shift), ``>>`` (right shift) +* Arithmetic operators: ``+``, ``-``, unary ``-``, ``*``, ``/``, ``%`` (modulo), ``**`` (exponentiation) + + +Comparisons +^^^^^^^^^^^ + +The value of a comparison is the one obtained by comparing the integer value. + +Bit operations +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +Bit operations are performed on the two's complement representation of the number. +This means that, for example ``~int256(0) == int256(-1)``. + +Shifts +^^^^^^ + +The result of a shift operation has the type of the left operand. The +expression ``x << y`` is equivalent to ``x * 2**y``, and, for positive integers, +``x >> y`` is equivalent to ``x / 2**y``. For negative ``x``, ``x >> y`` +is equivalent to dividing by a power of ``2`` while rounding down (towards negative infinity). +Shifting by a negative amount throws a runtime exception. + +.. warning:: + Before version ``0.5.0`` a right shift ``x >> y`` for negative ``x`` was equivalent to ``x / 2**y``, + i.e. right shifts used rounding towards zero instead of rounding towards negative infinity. + +Addition, Subtraction and Multiplication +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +Addition, subtraction and multiplication have the usual semantics. +They wrap in two's complement representation, meaning that +for example ``uint256(0) - uint256(1) == 2**256 - 1``. You have to take these overflows +into account when designing safe smart contracts. + +The expression ``-x`` is equivalent to ``(T(0) - x)`` where +``T`` is the type of ``x``. This means that ``-x`` will not be negative +if the type of ``x`` is an unsigned integer type. Also, ``-x`` can be +positive if ``x`` is negative. There is another caveat also resulting +from two's complement representation:: + + int x = -2**255; + assert(-x == x); + +This means that even if a number is negative, you cannot assume that +its negation will be positive. + + +Division +^^^^^^^^ + +Since the type of the result of an operation is always the type of one of +the operands, division on integers always results in an integer. +In Solidity, division rounds towards zero. This mean that ``int256(-5) / int256(2) == int256(-2)``. + +Note that in contrast, division on :ref:`literals<rational_literals>` results in fractional values +of arbitrary precision. + +.. note:: + Division by zero causes a failing assert. + +Modulo +^^^^^^ + +The modulo operation ``a % n`` yields the remainder ``r`` after the division of the operand ``a`` +by the operand ``n``, where ``q = int(a / n)`` and ``r = a - (n * q)``. This means that modulo +results in the same sign as its left operand (or zero) and ``a % n == -(abs(a) % n)`` holds for negative ``a``: + + * ``int256(5) % int256(2) == int256(1)`` + * ``int256(5) % int256(-2) == int256(1)`` + * ``int256(-5) % int256(2) == int256(-1)`` + * ``int256(-5) % int256(-2) == int256(-1)`` + +.. note:: + Modulo with zero causes a failing assert. + +Exponentiation +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +Exponentiation is only available for unsigned types. Please take care that the types +you are using are large enough to hold the result and prepare for potential wrapping behaviour. + +.. note:: + Note that ``0**0`` is defined by the EVM as ``1``. + +.. index:: ! ufixed, ! fixed, ! fixed point number + +Fixed Point Numbers +------------------- + +.. warning:: + Fixed point numbers are not fully supported by Solidity yet. They can be declared, but + cannot be assigned to or from. + +``fixed`` / ``ufixed``: Signed and unsigned fixed point number of various sizes. Keywords ``ufixedMxN`` and ``fixedMxN``, where ``M`` represents the number of bits taken by +the type and ``N`` represents how many decimal points are available. ``M`` must be divisible by 8 and goes from 8 to 256 bits. ``N`` must be between 0 and 80, inclusive. +``ufixed`` and ``fixed`` are aliases for ``ufixed128x18`` and ``fixed128x18``, respectively. + +Operators: + +* Comparisons: ``<=``, ``<``, ``==``, ``!=``, ``>=``, ``>`` (evaluate to ``bool``) +* Arithmetic operators: ``+``, ``-``, unary ``-``, ``*``, ``/``, ``%`` (modulo) + +.. note:: + The main difference between floating point (``float`` and ``double`` in many languages, more precisely IEEE 754 numbers) and fixed point numbers is + that the number of bits used for the integer and the fractional part (the part after the decimal dot) is flexible in the former, while it is strictly + defined in the latter. Generally, in floating point almost the entire space is used to represent the number, while only a small number of bits define + where the decimal point is. + +.. index:: address, balance, send, call, callcode, delegatecall, staticcall, transfer + +.. _address: + +Address +------- + +The address type comes in two flavours, which are largely identical: + + - ``address``: Holds a 20 byte value (size of an Ethereum address). + - ``address payable``: Same as ``address``, but with the additional members ``transfer`` and ``send``. + +The idea behind this distinction is that ``address payable`` is an address you can send Ether to, +while a plain ``address`` cannot be sent Ether. + +Type conversions: + +Implicit conversions from ``address payable`` to ``address`` are allowed, whereas conversions from ``address`` to ``address payable`` are +not possible (the only way to perform such a conversion is by using an intermediate conversion to ``uint160``). + +:ref:`Address literals<address_literals>` can be implicitly converted to ``address payable``. + +Explicit conversions to and from ``address`` are allowed for integers, integer literals, ``bytes20`` and contract types with the following +caveat: +Conversions of the form ``address payable(x)`` are not allowed. Instead the result of a conversion of the form ``address(x)`` +has the type ``address payable``, if ``x`` is of integer or fixed bytes type, a literal or a contract with a payable fallback function. +If ``x`` is a contract without payable fallback function, then ``address(x)`` will be of type ``address``. +In external function signatures ``address`` is used for both the ``address`` and the ``address payable`` type. + +.. note:: + It might very well be that you do not need to care about the distinction between ``address`` + and ``address payable`` and just use ``address`` everywhere. For example, + if you are using the :ref:`withdrawal pattern<withdrawal_pattern>`, you can (and should) store the + address itself as ``address``, because you invoke the ``transfer`` function on + ``msg.sender``, which is an ``address payable``. + +Operators: + +* ``<=``, ``<``, ``==``, ``!=``, ``>=`` and ``>`` + +.. warning:: + If you convert a type that uses a larger byte size to an ``address``, for example ``bytes32``, then the ``address`` is truncated. + To reduce conversion ambiguity version 0.4.24 and higher of the compiler force you make the truncation explicit in the conversion. + Take for example the address ``0x111122223333444455556666777788889999AAAABBBBCCCCDDDDEEEEFFFFCCCC``. + + You can use ``address(uint160(bytes20(b)))``, which results in ``0x111122223333444455556666777788889999aAaa``, + or you can use ``address(uint160(uint256(b)))``, which results in ``0x777788889999AaAAbBbbCcccddDdeeeEfFFfCcCc``. + +.. note:: + The distinction between ``address`` and ``address payable`` was introduced with version 0.5.0. + Also starting from that version, contracts do not derive from the address type, but can still be explicitly converted to + ``address`` or to ``address payable``, if they have a payable fallback function. + +.. _members-of-addresses: + +Members of Addresses +^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^ + +For a quick reference of all members of address, see :ref:`address_related`. + +* ``balance`` and ``transfer`` + +It is possible to query the balance of an address using the property ``balance`` +and to send Ether (in units of wei) to a payable address using the ``transfer`` function: + +:: + + address payable x = address(0x123); + address myAddress = address(this); + if (x.balance < 10 && myAddress.balance >= 10) x.transfer(10); + +The ``transfer`` function fails if the balance of the current contract is not large enough +or if the Ether transfer is rejected by the receiving account. The ``transfer`` function +reverts on failure. + +.. note:: + If ``x`` is a contract address, its code (more specifically: its :ref:`fallback-function`, if present) will be executed together with the ``transfer`` call (this is a feature of the EVM and cannot be prevented). If that execution runs out of gas or fails in any way, the Ether transfer will be reverted and the current contract will stop with an exception. + +* ``send`` + +Send is the low-level counterpart of ``transfer``. If the execution fails, the current contract will not stop with an exception, but ``send`` will return ``false``. + +.. warning:: + There are some dangers in using ``send``: The transfer fails if the call stack depth is at 1024 + (this can always be forced by the caller) and it also fails if the recipient runs out of gas. So in order + to make safe Ether transfers, always check the return value of ``send``, use ``transfer`` or even better: + use a pattern where the recipient withdraws the money. + +* ``call``, ``delegatecall`` and ``staticcall`` + +In order to interface with contracts that do not adhere to the ABI, +or to get more direct control over the encoding, +the functions ``call``, ``delegatecall`` and ``staticcall`` are provided. +They all take a single ``bytes memory`` parameter and +return the success condition (as a ``bool``) and the returned data +(``bytes memory``). +The functions ``abi.encode``, ``abi.encodePacked``, ``abi.encodeWithSelector`` +and ``abi.encodeWithSignature`` can be used to encode structured data. + +Example:: + + bytes memory payload = abi.encodeWithSignature("register(string)", "MyName"); + (bool success, bytes memory returnData) = address(nameReg).call(payload); + require(success); + +.. warning:: + All these functions are low-level functions and should be used with care. + Specifically, any unknown contract might be malicious and if you call it, you + hand over control to that contract which could in turn call back into + your contract, so be prepared for changes to your state variables + when the call returns. The regular way to interact with other contracts + is to call a function on a contract object (``x.f()``). + +.. note:: + Previous versions of Solidity allowed these functions to receive + arbitrary arguments and would also handle a first argument of type + ``bytes4`` differently. These edge cases were removed in version 0.5.0. + +It is possible to adjust the supplied gas with the ``.gas()`` modifier:: + + address(nameReg).call.gas(1000000)(abi.encodeWithSignature("register(string)", "MyName")); + +Similarly, the supplied Ether value can be controlled too:: + + address(nameReg).call.value(1 ether)(abi.encodeWithSignature("register(string)", "MyName")); + +Lastly, these modifiers can be combined. Their order does not matter:: + + address(nameReg).call.gas(1000000).value(1 ether)(abi.encodeWithSignature("register(string)", "MyName")); + +In a similar way, the function ``delegatecall`` can be used: the difference is that only the code of the given address is used, all other aspects (storage, balance, ...) are taken from the current contract. The purpose of ``delegatecall`` is to use library code which is stored in another contract. The user has to ensure that the layout of storage in both contracts is suitable for delegatecall to be used. + +.. note:: + Prior to homestead, only a limited variant called ``callcode`` was available that did not provide access to the original ``msg.sender`` and ``msg.value`` values. This function was removed in version 0.5.0. + +Since byzantium ``staticcall`` can be used as well. This is basically the same as ``call``, but will revert if the called function modifies the state in any way. + +All three functions ``call``, ``delegatecall`` and ``staticcall`` are very low-level functions and should only be used as a *last resort* as they break the type-safety of Solidity. + +The ``.gas()`` option is available on all three methods, while the ``.value()`` option is not supported for ``delegatecall``. + +.. note:: + All contracts can be converted to ``address`` type, so it is possible to query the balance of the + current contract using ``address(this).balance``. + +.. index:: ! contract type, ! type; contract + +.. _contract_types: + +Contract Types +-------------- + +Every :ref:`contract<contracts>` defines its own type. +You can implicitly convert contracts to contracts they inherit from. +Contracts can be explicitly converted to and from all other contract types +and the ``address`` type. + +Explicit conversion to and from the ``address payable`` type +is only possible if the contract type has a payable fallback function. +The conversion is still performed using ``address(x)`` and not +using ``address payable(x)``. You can find more information in the section about +the :ref:`address type<address>`. + +.. note:: + Before version 0.5.0, contracts directly derived from the address type + and there was no distinction between ``address`` and ``address payable``. + +If you declare a local variable of contract type (`MyContract c`), you can call +functions on that contract. Take care to assign it from somewhere that is the +same contract type. + +You can also instantiate contracts (which means they are newly created). You +can find more details in the :ref:`'Contracts via new'<creating-contracts>` +section. + +The data representation of a contract is identical to that of the ``address`` +type and this type is also used in the :ref:`ABI<ABI>`. + +Contracts do not support any operators. + +The members of contract types are the external functions of the contract +including public state variables. + +.. index:: byte array, bytes32 + +Fixed-size byte arrays +---------------------- + +The value types ``bytes1``, ``bytes2``, ``bytes3``, ..., ``bytes32`` +hold a sequence of bytes from one to up to 32. +``byte`` is an alias for ``bytes1``. + +Operators: + +* Comparisons: ``<=``, ``<``, ``==``, ``!=``, ``>=``, ``>`` (evaluate to ``bool``) +* Bit operators: ``&``, ``|``, ``^`` (bitwise exclusive or), ``~`` (bitwise negation) +* Shift operators: ``<<`` (left shift), ``>>`` (right shift) +* Index access: If ``x`` is of type ``bytesI``, then ``x[k]`` for ``0 <= k < I`` returns the ``k`` th byte (read-only). + +The shifting operator works with any integer type as right operand (but +returns the type of the left operand), which denotes the number of bits to shift by. +Shifting by a negative amount causes a runtime exception. + +Members: + +* ``.length`` yields the fixed length of the byte array (read-only). + +.. note:: + The type ``byte[]`` is an array of bytes, but due to padding rules, it wastes + 31 bytes of space for each element (except in storage). It is better to use the ``bytes`` + type instead. + +Dynamically-sized byte array +---------------------------- + +``bytes``: + Dynamically-sized byte array, see :ref:`arrays`. Not a value-type! +``string``: + Dynamically-sized UTF-8-encoded string, see :ref:`arrays`. Not a value-type! + +.. index:: address, literal;address + +.. _address_literals: + +Address Literals +---------------- + +Hexadecimal literals that pass the address checksum test, for example +``0xdCad3a6d3569DF655070DEd06cb7A1b2Ccd1D3AF`` are of ``address payable`` type. +Hexadecimal literals that are between 39 and 41 digits +long and do not pass the checksum test produce +a warning and are treated as regular rational number literals. + +.. note:: + The mixed-case address checksum format is defined in `EIP-55 <https://github.com/ethereum/EIPs/blob/master/EIPS/eip-55.md>`_. + +.. index:: literal, literal;rational + +.. _rational_literals: + +Rational and Integer Literals +----------------------------- + +Integer literals are formed from a sequence of numbers in the range 0-9. +They are interpreted as decimals. For example, ``69`` means sixty nine. +Octal literals do not exist in Solidity and leading zeros are invalid. + +Decimal fraction literals are formed by a ``.`` with at least one number on +one side. Examples include ``1.``, ``.1`` and ``1.3``. + +Scientific notation is also supported, where the base can have fractions, while the exponent cannot. +Examples include ``2e10``, ``-2e10``, ``2e-10``, ``2.5e1``. + +Underscores can be used to separate the digits of a numeric literal to aid readability. +For example, decimal ``123_000``, hexadecimal ``0x2eff_abde``, scientific decimal notation ``1_2e345_678`` are all valid. +Underscores are only allowed between two digits and only one consecutive underscore is allowed. +There is no additional semantic meaning added to a number literal containing underscores, +the underscores are ignored. + +Number literal expressions retain arbitrary precision until they are converted to a non-literal type (i.e. by +using them together with a non-literal expression or by explicit conversion). +This means that computations do not overflow and divisions do not truncate +in number literal expressions. + +For example, ``(2**800 + 1) - 2**800`` results in the constant ``1`` (of type ``uint8``) +although intermediate results would not even fit the machine word size. Furthermore, ``.5 * 8`` results +in the integer ``4`` (although non-integers were used in between). + +Any operator that can be applied to integers can also be applied to number literal expressions as +long as the operands are integers. If any of the two is fractional, bit operations are disallowed +and exponentiation is disallowed if the exponent is fractional (because that might result in +a non-rational number). + +.. note:: + Solidity has a number literal type for each rational number. + Integer literals and rational number literals belong to number literal types. + Moreover, all number literal expressions (i.e. the expressions that + contain only number literals and operators) belong to number literal + types. So the number literal expressions ``1 + 2`` and ``2 + 1`` both + belong to the same number literal type for the rational number three. + +.. warning:: + Division on integer literals used to truncate in Solidity prior to version 0.4.0, but it now converts into a rational number, i.e. ``5 / 2`` is not equal to ``2``, but to ``2.5``. + +.. note:: + Number literal expressions are converted into a non-literal type as soon as they are used with non-literal + expressions. Disregarding types, the value of the expression assigned to ``b`` + below evaluates to an integer. Because ``a`` is of type ``uint128``, the + expression ``2.5 + a`` has to have a proper type, though. Since there is no common type + for the type of ``2.5`` and ``uint128``, the Solidity compiler does not accept + this code. + +:: + + uint128 a = 1; + uint128 b = 2.5 + a + 0.5; + +.. index:: literal, literal;string, string +.. _string_literals: + +String Literals and Types +------------------------- + +String literals are written with either double or single-quotes (``"foo"`` or ``'bar'``). They do not imply trailing zeroes as in C; ``"foo"`` represents three bytes, not four. As with integer literals, their type can vary, but they are implicitly convertible to ``bytes1``, ..., ``bytes32``, if they fit, to ``bytes`` and to ``string``. + +For example, with ``bytes32 samevar = "stringliteral"`` the string literal is interpreted in its raw byte form when assigned to a ``bytes32`` type. + +String literals support the following escape characters: + + - ``\<newline>`` (escapes an actual newline) + - ``\\`` (backslash) + - ``\'`` (single quote) + - ``\"`` (double quote) + - ``\b`` (backspace) + - ``\f`` (form feed) + - ``\n`` (newline) + - ``\r`` (carriage return) + - ``\t`` (tab) + - ``\v`` (vertical tab) + - ``\xNN`` (hex escape, see below) + - ``\uNNNN`` (unicode escape, see below) + +``\xNN`` takes a hex value and inserts the appropriate byte, while ``\uNNNN`` takes a Unicode codepoint and inserts an UTF-8 sequence. + +The string in the following example has a length of ten bytes. +It starts with a newline byte, followed by a double quote, a single +quote a backslash character and then (without separator) the +character sequence ``abcdef``. + +:: + + "\n\"\'\\abc\ + def" + +Any unicode line terminator which is not a newline (i.e. LF, VF, FF, CR, NEL, LS, PS) is considered to +terminate the string literal. Newline only terminates the string literal if it is not preceded by a ``\``. + +.. index:: literal, bytes + +Hexadecimal Literals +-------------------- + +Hexadecimal literals are prefixed with the keyword ``hex`` and are enclosed in double or single-quotes (``hex"001122FF"``). Their content must be a hexadecimal string and their value will be the binary representation of those values. + +Hexadecimal literals behave like :ref:`string literals <string_literals>` and have the same convertibility restrictions. + +.. index:: enum + +.. _enums: + +Enums +----- + +Enums are one way to create a user-defined type in Solidity. They are explicitly convertible +to and from all integer types but implicit conversion is not allowed. The explicit conversion +from integer checks at runtime that the value lies inside the range of the enum and causes a failing assert otherwise. +Enums needs at least one member. + +The data representation is the same as for enums in C: The options are represented by +subsequent unsigned integer values starting from ``0``. + + +:: + + pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; + + contract test { + enum ActionChoices { GoLeft, GoRight, GoStraight, SitStill } + ActionChoices choice; + ActionChoices constant defaultChoice = ActionChoices.GoStraight; + + function setGoStraight() public { + choice = ActionChoices.GoStraight; + } + + // Since enum types are not part of the ABI, the signature of "getChoice" + // will automatically be changed to "getChoice() returns (uint8)" + // for all matters external to Solidity. The integer type used is just + // large enough to hold all enum values, i.e. if you have more than 256 values, + // `uint16` will be used and so on. + function getChoice() public view returns (ActionChoices) { + return choice; + } + + function getDefaultChoice() public pure returns (uint) { + return uint(defaultChoice); + } + } + +.. index:: ! function type, ! type; function + +.. _function_types: + +Function Types +-------------- + +Function types are the types of functions. Variables of function type +can be assigned from functions and function parameters of function type +can be used to pass functions to and return functions from function calls. +Function types come in two flavours - *internal* and *external* functions: + +Internal functions can only be called inside the current contract (more specifically, +inside the current code unit, which also includes internal library functions +and inherited functions) because they cannot be executed outside of the +context of the current contract. Calling an internal function is realized +by jumping to its entry label, just like when calling a function of the current +contract internally. + +External functions consist of an address and a function signature and they can +be passed via and returned from external function calls. + +Function types are notated as follows:: + + function (<parameter types>) {internal|external} [pure|view|payable] [returns (<return types>)] + +In contrast to the parameter types, the return types cannot be empty - if the +function type should not return anything, the whole ``returns (<return types>)`` +part has to be omitted. + +By default, function types are internal, so the ``internal`` keyword can be +omitted. Note that this only applies to function types. Visibility has +to be specified explicitly for functions defined in contracts, they +do not have a default. + +Conversions: + +A value of external function type can be explicitly converted to ``address`` +resulting in the address of the contract of the function. + +A function type ``A`` is implicitly convertible to a function type ``B`` if and only if +their parameter types are identical, their return types are identical, +their internal/external property is identical and the state mutability of ``A`` +is not more restrictive than the state mutability of ``B``. In particular: + + - ``pure`` functions can be converted to ``view`` and ``non-payable`` functions + - ``view`` functions can be converted to ``non-payable`` functions + - ``payable`` functions can be converted to ``non-payable`` functions + +No other conversions between function types are possible. + +The rule about ``payable`` and ``non-payable`` might be a little +confusing, but in essence, if a function is ``payable``, this means that it +also accepts a payment of zero Ether, so it also is ``non-payable``. +On the other hand, a ``non-payable`` function will reject Ether sent to it, +so ``non-payable`` functions cannot be converted to ``payable`` functions. + +If a function type variable is not initialised, calling it results +in a failed assertion. The same happens if you call a function after using ``delete`` +on it. + +If external function types are used outside of the context of Solidity, +they are treated as the ``function`` type, which encodes the address +followed by the function identifier together in a single ``bytes24`` type. + +Note that public functions of the current contract can be used both as an +internal and as an external function. To use ``f`` as an internal function, +just use ``f``, if you want to use its external form, use ``this.f``. + +Members: + +Public (or external) functions also have a special member called ``selector``, +which returns the :ref:`ABI function selector <abi_function_selector>`:: + + pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; + + contract Selector { + function f() public pure returns (bytes4) { + return this.f.selector; + } + } + +Example that shows how to use internal function types:: + + pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0; + + library ArrayUtils { + // internal functions can be used in internal library functions because + // they will be part of the same code context + function map(uint[] memory self, function (uint) pure returns (uint) f) + internal + pure + returns (uint[] memory r) + { + r = new uint[](self.length); + for (uint i = 0; i < self.length; i++) { + r[i] = f(self[i]); + } + } + function reduce( + uint[] memory self, + function (uint, uint) pure returns (uint) f + ) + internal + pure + returns (uint r) + { + r = self[0]; + for (uint i = 1; i < self.length; i++) { + r = f(r, self[i]); + } + } + function range(uint length) internal pure returns (uint[] memory r) { + r = new uint[](length); + for (uint i = 0; i < r.length; i++) { + r[i] = i; + } + } + } + + contract Pyramid { + using ArrayUtils for *; + function pyramid(uint l) public pure returns (uint) { + return ArrayUtils.range(l).map(square).reduce(sum); + } + function square(uint x) internal pure returns (uint) { + return x * x; + } + function sum(uint x, uint y) internal pure returns (uint) { + return x + y; + } + } + +Another example that uses external function types:: + + pragma solidity >=0.4.22 <0.6.0; + + contract Oracle { + struct Request { + bytes data; + function(uint) external callback; + } + Request[] requests; + event NewRequest(uint); + function query(bytes memory data, function(uint) external callback) public { + requests.push(Request(data, callback)); + emit NewRequest(requests.length - 1); + } + function reply(uint requestID, uint response) public { + // Here goes the check that the reply comes from a trusted source + requests[requestID].callback(response); + } + } + + contract OracleUser { + Oracle constant oracle = Oracle(0x1234567); // known contract + uint exchangeRate; + function buySomething() public { + oracle.query("USD", this.oracleResponse); + } + function oracleResponse(uint response) public { + require( + msg.sender == address(oracle), + "Only oracle can call this." + ); + exchangeRate = response; + } + } + +.. note:: + Lambda or inline functions are planned but not yet supported.
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