Merge pull request #5769 from ethereum/docs-split-reference-types

[DOCS] Split Reference types doc into new file

2 files changed, 410 insertions, 409 deletions

diff --git a/docs/types.rst b/docs/types.rst
index d3d70ebd..1fb15bdc 100644
--- a/docs/types.rst
+++ b/docs/types.rst
@@ -20,415 +20,7 @@ tuple with a second `bool` value denoting success.
 
 .. include:: types/value-types.rst
 
-.. index:: ! type;reference, ! reference type, storage, memory, location, array, struct
-
-.. _reference-types:
-
-Reference Types
-===============
-
-Values of reference type can be modified through multiple different names.
-Contrast this with value types where you get an independent copy whenever
-a variable of value type is used. Because of that, reference types have to be handled
-more carefully than value types. Currently, reference types comprise structs,
-arrays and mappings. If you use a reference type, you always have to explicitly
-provide the data area where the type is stored: ``memory`` (whose lifetime is limited
-to a function call), ``storage`` (the location where the state variables are stored)
-or ``calldata`` (special data location that contains the function arguments,
-only available for external function call parameters).
-
-An assignment or type conversion that changes the data location will always incur an automatic copy operation,
-while assignments inside the same data location only copy in some cases for storage types.
-
-.. _data-location:
-
-Data location
--------------
-
-Every reference type, i.e. *arrays* and *structs*, has an additional
-annotation, the "data location", about where it is stored. There are three data locations:
-``memory``, ``storage`` and ``calldata``. Calldata is only valid for parameters of external contract
-functions and is required for this type of parameter. Calldata is a non-modifiable,
-non-persistent area where function arguments are stored, and behaves mostly like memory.
-
-
-.. note::
-    Prior to version 0.5.0 the data location could be omitted, and would default to different locations
-    depending on the kind of variable, function type, etc., but all complex types must now give an explicit
-    data location.
-
-.. _data-location-assignment:
-
-Data location and assignment behaviour
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-Data locations are not only relevant for persistency of data, but also for the semantics of assignments:
-
-* Assignments between ``storage`` and ``memory`` (or from ``calldata``) always create an independent copy.
-* Assignments from ``memory`` to ``memory`` only create references. This means that changes to one memory variable are also visible in all other memory variables that refer to the same data.
-* Assignments from ``storage`` to a local storage variable also only assign a reference.
-* All other assignments to ``storage`` always copy. Examples for this case are assignments to state variables or to members of local variables of storage struct type, even if the local variable itself is just a reference.
-
-::
-
-    pragma solidity >=0.4.0 <0.6.0;
-
-    contract C {
-        uint[] x; // the data location of x is storage
-
-        // the data location of memoryArray is memory
-        function f(uint[] memory memoryArray) public {
-            x = memoryArray; // works, copies the whole array to storage
-            uint[] storage y = x; // works, assigns a pointer, data location of y is storage
-            y[7]; // fine, returns the 8th element
-            y.length = 2; // fine, modifies x through y
-            delete x; // fine, clears the array, also modifies y
-            // The following does not work; it would need to create a new temporary /
-            // unnamed array in storage, but storage is "statically" allocated:
-            // y = memoryArray;
-            // This does not work either, since it would "reset" the pointer, but there
-            // is no sensible location it could point to.
-            // delete y;
-            g(x); // calls g, handing over a reference to x
-            h(x); // calls h and creates an independent, temporary copy in memory
-        }
-
-        function g(uint[] storage) internal pure {}
-        function h(uint[] memory) public pure {}
-    }
-
-.. index:: ! array
-
-.. _arrays:
-
-Arrays
-------
-
-Arrays can have a compile-time fixed size, or they can have a dynamic size.
-
-The type of an array of fixed size ``k`` and element type ``T`` is written as ``T[k]``,
-and an array of dynamic size as ``T[]``.
-
-For example, an array of 5 dynamic arrays of ``uint`` is written as
-``uint[][5]``. The notation is reversed compared to some other languages. In
-Solidity, ``X[3]`` is always an array containing three elements of type ``X``,
-even if ``X`` is itself an array. This is not the case in other languages such
-as C.
-
-Indices are zero-based, and access is in the opposite direction of the
-declaration.
-
-For example, if you have a variable ``uint[][5] x memory``, you access the
-second ``uint`` in the third dynamic array using ``x[2][1]``, and to access the
-third dynamic array, use ``x[2]``. Again,
-if you have an array ``T[5] a`` for a type ``T`` that can also be an array,
-then ``a[2]`` always has type ``T``.
-
-Array elements can be of any type, including mapping or struct. The general
-restrictions for types apply, in that mappings can only be stored in the
-``storage`` data location and publicly-visible functions need parameters that are :ref:`ABI types <ABI>`.
-
-Accessing an array past its end causes a failing assertion. You can use the ``.push()`` method to append a new element at the end or assign to the ``.length`` :ref:`member <array-members>` to change the size (see below for caveats).
-method or increase the ``.length`` :ref:`member <array-members>` to add elements.
-
-Variables of type ``bytes`` and ``string`` are special arrays. A ``bytes`` is similar to ``byte[]``,
-but it is packed tightly in calldata and memory. ``string`` is equal to ``bytes`` but does not allow
-length or index access.
-
-You should use ``bytes`` over ``byte[]`` because it is cheaper, since ``byte[]`` adds 31 padding bytes between the elements. As a general rule,
-use ``bytes`` for arbitrary-length raw byte data and ``string`` for arbitrary-length
-string (UTF-8) data. If you can limit the length to a certain number of bytes,
-always use one of the value types ``bytes1`` to ``bytes32`` because they are much cheaper.
-
-.. note::
-    If you want to access the byte-representation of a string ``s``, use
-    ``bytes(s).length`` / ``bytes(s)[7] = 'x';``. Keep in mind
-    that you are accessing the low-level bytes of the UTF-8 representation,
-    and not the individual characters.
-
-It is possible to mark arrays ``public`` and have Solidity create a :ref:`getter <visibility-and-getters>`.
-The numeric index becomes a required parameter for the getter.
-
-.. index:: ! array;allocating, new
-
-Allocating Memory Arrays
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-You can use the ``new`` keyword to create arrays with a runtime-dependent length in memory.
-As opposed to storage arrays, it is **not** possible to resize memory arrays (e.g. by assigning to
-the ``.length`` member). You either have to calculate the required size in advance
-or create a new memory array and copy every element.
-
-::
-
-    pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
-
-    contract C {
-        function f(uint len) public pure {
-            uint[] memory a = new uint[](7);
-            bytes memory b = new bytes(len);
-            assert(a.length == 7);
-            assert(b.length == len);
-            a[6] = 8;
-        }
-    }
-
-.. index:: ! array;literals, ! inline;arrays
-
-Array Literals
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-An array literal is a comma-separated list of one or more expressions, enclosed
-in square brackets (``[...]``). For example ``[1, a, f(3)]``. There must be a
-common type all elements can be implicitly converted to. This is the elementary
-type of the array.
-
-Array literals are always statically-sized memory arrays.
-
-In the example below, the type of ``[1, 2, 3]`` is
-``uint8[3] memory``. Because the type of each of these constants is ``uint8``, if you want the result to be a ``uint[3] memory`` type, you need to convert the first element to ``uint``.
-
-::
-
-    pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
-
-    contract C {
-        function f() public pure {
-            g([uint(1), 2, 3]);
-        }
-        function g(uint[3] memory) public pure {
-            // ...
-        }
-    }
-
-Fixed size memory arrays cannot be assigned to dynamically-sized memory arrays, i.e. the following is not possible:
-
-::
-
-    pragma solidity >=0.4.0 <0.6.0;
-
-    // This will not compile.
-    contract C {
-        function f() public {
-            // The next line creates a type error because uint[3] memory
-            // cannot be converted to uint[] memory.
-            uint[] memory x = [uint(1), 3, 4];
-        }
-    }
-
-It is planned to remove this restriction in the future, but it creates some
-complications because of how arrays are passed in the ABI.
-
-.. index:: ! array;length, length, push, pop, !array;push, !array;pop
-
-.. _array-members:
-
-Array Members
-^^^^^^^^^^^^^
-
-**length**:
-    Arrays have a ``length`` member that contains their number of elements.
-    The length of memory arrays is fixed (but dynamic, i.e. it can depend on runtime parameters) once they are created.
-    For dynamically-sized arrays (only available for storage), this member can be assigned to resize the array.
-    Accessing elements outside the current length does not automatically resize the array and instead causes a failing assertion.
-    Increasing the length adds new zero-initialised elements to the array.
-    Reducing the length performs an implicit :ref:``delete`` on each of the
-    removed elements. If you try to resize a non-dynamic array that isn't in
-    storage, you receive a ``Value must be an lvalue`` error.
-**push**:
-     Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member function called ``push`` that you can use to append an element at the end of the array. The element will be zero-initialised. The function returns the new length.
-**pop**:
-     Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member function called ``pop`` that you can use to remove an element from the end of the array. This also implicitly calls :ref:``delete`` on the removed element.
-
-.. warning::
-    If you use ``.length--`` on an empty array, it causes an underflow and
-    thus sets the length to ``2**256-1``.
-
-.. note::
-    Increasing the length of a storage array has constant gas costs because
-    storage is assumed to be zero-initialised, while decreasing
-    the length has at least linear cost (but in most cases worse than linear),
-    because it includes explicitly clearing the removed
-    elements similar to calling :ref:``delete`` on them.
-
-.. note::
-    It is not yet possible to use arrays of arrays in external functions
-    (but they are supported in public functions).
-
-.. note::
-    In EVM versions before Byzantium, it was not possible to access
-    dynamic arrays return from function calls. If you call functions
-    that return dynamic arrays, make sure to use an EVM that is set to
-    Byzantium mode.
-
-::
-
-    pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
-
-    contract ArrayContract {
-        uint[2**20] m_aLotOfIntegers;
-        // Note that the following is not a pair of dynamic arrays but a
-        // dynamic array of pairs (i.e. of fixed size arrays of length two).
-        // Because of that, T[] is always a dynamic array of T, even if T
-        // itself is an array.
-        // Data location for all state variables is storage.
-        bool[2][] m_pairsOfFlags;
-
-        // newPairs is stored in memory - the only possibility
-        // for public contract function arguments
-        function setAllFlagPairs(bool[2][] memory newPairs) public {
-            // assignment to a storage array performs a copy of ``newPairs`` and
-            // replaces the complete array ``m_pairsOfFlags``.
-            m_pairsOfFlags = newPairs;
-        }
-
-        struct StructType {
-            uint[] contents;
-            uint moreInfo;
-        }
-        StructType s;
-
-        function f(uint[] memory c) public {
-            // stores a reference to ``s`` in ``g``
-            StructType storage g = s;
-            // also changes ``s.moreInfo``.
-            g.moreInfo = 2;
-            // assigns a copy because ``g.contents``
-            // is not a local variable, but a member of
-            // a local variable.
-            g.contents = c;
-        }
-
-        function setFlagPair(uint index, bool flagA, bool flagB) public {
-            // access to a non-existing index will throw an exception
-            m_pairsOfFlags[index][0] = flagA;
-            m_pairsOfFlags[index][1] = flagB;
-        }
-
-        function changeFlagArraySize(uint newSize) public {
-            // if the new size is smaller, removed array elements will be cleared
-            m_pairsOfFlags.length = newSize;
-        }
-
-        function clear() public {
-            // these clear the arrays completely
-            delete m_pairsOfFlags;
-            delete m_aLotOfIntegers;
-            // identical effect here
-            m_pairsOfFlags.length = 0;
-        }
-
-        bytes m_byteData;
-
-        function byteArrays(bytes memory data) public {
-            // byte arrays ("bytes") are different as they are stored without padding,
-            // but can be treated identical to "uint8[]"
-            m_byteData = data;
-            m_byteData.length += 7;
-            m_byteData[3] = 0x08;
-            delete m_byteData[2];
-        }
-
-        function addFlag(bool[2] memory flag) public returns (uint) {
-            return m_pairsOfFlags.push(flag);
-        }
-
-        function createMemoryArray(uint size) public pure returns (bytes memory) {
-            // Dynamic memory arrays are created using `new`:
-            uint[2][] memory arrayOfPairs = new uint[2][](size);
-
-            // Inline arrays are always statically-sized and if you only
-            // use literals, you have to provide at least one type.
-            arrayOfPairs[0] = [uint(1), 2];
-
-            // Create a dynamic byte array:
-            bytes memory b = new bytes(200);
-            for (uint i = 0; i < b.length; i++)
-                b[i] = byte(uint8(i));
-            return b;
-        }
-    }
-
-
-.. index:: ! struct, ! type;struct
-
-.. _structs:
-
-Structs
--------
-
-Solidity provides a way to define new types in the form of structs, which is
-shown in the following example:
-
-::
-
-    pragma solidity >=0.4.11 <0.6.0;
-
-    contract CrowdFunding {
-        // Defines a new type with two fields.
-        struct Funder {
-            address addr;
-            uint amount;
-        }
-
-        struct Campaign {
-            address payable beneficiary;
-            uint fundingGoal;
-            uint numFunders;
-            uint amount;
-            mapping (uint => Funder) funders;
-        }
-
-        uint numCampaigns;
-        mapping (uint => Campaign) campaigns;
-
-        function newCampaign(address payable beneficiary, uint goal) public returns (uint campaignID) {
-            campaignID = numCampaigns++; // campaignID is return variable
-            // Creates new struct in memory and copies it to storage.
-            // We leave out the mapping type, because it is not valid in memory.
-            // If structs are copied (even from storage to storage), mapping types
-            // are always omitted, because they cannot be enumerated.
-            campaigns[campaignID] = Campaign(beneficiary, goal, 0, 0);
-        }
-
-        function contribute(uint campaignID) public payable {
-            Campaign storage c = campaigns[campaignID];
-            // Creates a new temporary memory struct, initialised with the given values
-            // and copies it over to storage.
-            // Note that you can also use Funder(msg.sender, msg.value) to initialise.
-            c.funders[c.numFunders++] = Funder({addr: msg.sender, amount: msg.value});
-            c.amount += msg.value;
-        }
-
-        function checkGoalReached(uint campaignID) public returns (bool reached) {
-            Campaign storage c = campaigns[campaignID];
-            if (c.amount < c.fundingGoal)
-                return false;
-            uint amount = c.amount;
-            c.amount = 0;
-            c.beneficiary.transfer(amount);
-            return true;
-        }
-    }
-
-The contract does not provide the full functionality of a crowdfunding
-contract, but it contains the basic concepts necessary to understand structs.
-Struct types can be used inside mappings and arrays and they can itself
-contain mappings and arrays.
-
-It is not possible for a struct to contain a member of its own type,
-although the struct itself can be the value type of a mapping member
-or it can contain a dynamically-sized array of its type.
-This restriction is necessary, as the size of the struct has to be finite.
-
-Note how in all the functions, a struct type is assigned to a local variable
-with data location ``storage``.
-This does not copy the struct but only stores a reference so that assignments to
-members of the local variable actually write to the state.
-
-Of course, you can also directly access the members of the struct without
-assigning it to a local variable, as in
-``campaigns[campaignID].amount = 0``.
+.. include:: types/reference-types.rst
 
 .. index:: !mapping
 .. _mapping-types:
diff --git a/docs/types/reference-types.rst b/docs/types/reference-types.rst
new file mode 100644
index 00000000..b133bdf1
--- /dev/null
+++ b/docs/types/reference-types.rst
@@ -0,0 +1,409 @@
+.. index:: ! type;reference, ! reference type, storage, memory, location, array, struct
+
+.. _reference-types:
+
+Reference Types
+===============
+
+Values of reference type can be modified through multiple different names.
+Contrast this with value types where you get an independent copy whenever
+a variable of value type is used. Because of that, reference types have to be handled
+more carefully than value types. Currently, reference types comprise structs,
+arrays and mappings. If you use a reference type, you always have to explicitly
+provide the data area where the type is stored: ``memory`` (whose lifetime is limited
+to a function call), ``storage`` (the location where the state variables are stored)
+or ``calldata`` (special data location that contains the function arguments,
+only available for external function call parameters).
+
+An assignment or type conversion that changes the data location will always incur an automatic copy operation,
+while assignments inside the same data location only copy in some cases for storage types.
+
+.. _data-location:
+
+Data location
+-------------
+
+Every reference type, i.e. *arrays* and *structs*, has an additional
+annotation, the "data location", about where it is stored. There are three data locations:
+``memory``, ``storage`` and ``calldata``. Calldata is only valid for parameters of external contract
+functions and is required for this type of parameter. Calldata is a non-modifiable,
+non-persistent area where function arguments are stored, and behaves mostly like memory.
+
+
+.. note::
+    Prior to version 0.5.0 the data location could be omitted, and would default to different locations
+    depending on the kind of variable, function type, etc., but all complex types must now give an explicit
+    data location.
+
+.. _data-location-assignment:
+
+Data location and assignment behaviour
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+Data locations are not only relevant for persistency of data, but also for the semantics of assignments:
+
+* Assignments between ``storage`` and ``memory`` (or from ``calldata``) always create an independent copy.
+* Assignments from ``memory`` to ``memory`` only create references. This means that changes to one memory variable are also visible in all other memory variables that refer to the same data.
+* Assignments from ``storage`` to a local storage variable also only assign a reference.
+* All other assignments to ``storage`` always copy. Examples for this case are assignments to state variables or to members of local variables of storage struct type, even if the local variable itself is just a reference.
+
+::
+
+    pragma solidity >=0.4.0 <0.6.0;
+
+    contract C {
+        uint[] x; // the data location of x is storage
+
+        // the data location of memoryArray is memory
+        function f(uint[] memory memoryArray) public {
+            x = memoryArray; // works, copies the whole array to storage
+            uint[] storage y = x; // works, assigns a pointer, data location of y is storage
+            y[7]; // fine, returns the 8th element
+            y.length = 2; // fine, modifies x through y
+            delete x; // fine, clears the array, also modifies y
+            // The following does not work; it would need to create a new temporary /
+            // unnamed array in storage, but storage is "statically" allocated:
+            // y = memoryArray;
+            // This does not work either, since it would "reset" the pointer, but there
+            // is no sensible location it could point to.
+            // delete y;
+            g(x); // calls g, handing over a reference to x
+            h(x); // calls h and creates an independent, temporary copy in memory
+        }
+
+        function g(uint[] storage) internal pure {}
+        function h(uint[] memory) public pure {}
+    }
+
+.. index:: ! array
+
+.. _arrays:
+
+Arrays
+------
+
+Arrays can have a compile-time fixed size, or they can have a dynamic size.
+
+The type of an array of fixed size ``k`` and element type ``T`` is written as ``T[k]``,
+and an array of dynamic size as ``T[]``.
+
+For example, an array of 5 dynamic arrays of ``uint`` is written as
+``uint[][5]``. The notation is reversed compared to some other languages. In
+Solidity, ``X[3]`` is always an array containing three elements of type ``X``,
+even if ``X`` is itself an array. This is not the case in other languages such
+as C.
+
+Indices are zero-based, and access is in the opposite direction of the
+declaration.
+
+For example, if you have a variable ``uint[][5] x memory``, you access the
+second ``uint`` in the third dynamic array using ``x[2][1]``, and to access the
+third dynamic array, use ``x[2]``. Again,
+if you have an array ``T[5] a`` for a type ``T`` that can also be an array,
+then ``a[2]`` always has type ``T``.
+
+Array elements can be of any type, including mapping or struct. The general
+restrictions for types apply, in that mappings can only be stored in the
+``storage`` data location and publicly-visible functions need parameters that are :ref:`ABI types <ABI>`.
+
+Accessing an array past its end causes a failing assertion. You can use the ``.push()`` method to append a new element at the end or assign to the ``.length`` :ref:`member <array-members>` to change the size (see below for caveats).
+method or increase the ``.length`` :ref:`member <array-members>` to add elements.
+
+Variables of type ``bytes`` and ``string`` are special arrays. A ``bytes`` is similar to ``byte[]``,
+but it is packed tightly in calldata and memory. ``string`` is equal to ``bytes`` but does not allow
+length or index access.
+
+You should use ``bytes`` over ``byte[]`` because it is cheaper, since ``byte[]`` adds 31 padding bytes between the elements. As a general rule,
+use ``bytes`` for arbitrary-length raw byte data and ``string`` for arbitrary-length
+string (UTF-8) data. If you can limit the length to a certain number of bytes,
+always use one of the value types ``bytes1`` to ``bytes32`` because they are much cheaper.
+
+.. note::
+    If you want to access the byte-representation of a string ``s``, use
+    ``bytes(s).length`` / ``bytes(s)[7] = 'x';``. Keep in mind
+    that you are accessing the low-level bytes of the UTF-8 representation,
+    and not the individual characters.
+
+It is possible to mark arrays ``public`` and have Solidity create a :ref:`getter <visibility-and-getters>`.
+The numeric index becomes a required parameter for the getter.
+
+.. index:: ! array;allocating, new
+
+Allocating Memory Arrays
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+You can use the ``new`` keyword to create arrays with a runtime-dependent length in memory.
+As opposed to storage arrays, it is **not** possible to resize memory arrays (e.g. by assigning to
+the ``.length`` member). You either have to calculate the required size in advance
+or create a new memory array and copy every element.
+
+::
+
+    pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
+
+    contract C {
+        function f(uint len) public pure {
+            uint[] memory a = new uint[](7);
+            bytes memory b = new bytes(len);
+            assert(a.length == 7);
+            assert(b.length == len);
+            a[6] = 8;
+        }
+    }
+
+.. index:: ! array;literals, ! inline;arrays
+
+Array Literals
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+An array literal is a comma-separated list of one or more expressions, enclosed
+in square brackets (``[...]``). For example ``[1, a, f(3)]``. There must be a
+common type all elements can be implicitly converted to. This is the elementary
+type of the array.
+
+Array literals are always statically-sized memory arrays.
+
+In the example below, the type of ``[1, 2, 3]`` is
+``uint8[3] memory``. Because the type of each of these constants is ``uint8``, if you want the result to be a ``uint[3] memory`` type, you need to convert the first element to ``uint``.
+
+::
+
+    pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
+
+    contract C {
+        function f() public pure {
+            g([uint(1), 2, 3]);
+        }
+        function g(uint[3] memory) public pure {
+            // ...
+        }
+    }
+
+Fixed size memory arrays cannot be assigned to dynamically-sized memory arrays, i.e. the following is not possible:
+
+::
+
+    pragma solidity >=0.4.0 <0.6.0;
+
+    // This will not compile.
+    contract C {
+        function f() public {
+            // The next line creates a type error because uint[3] memory
+            // cannot be converted to uint[] memory.
+            uint[] memory x = [uint(1), 3, 4];
+        }
+    }
+
+It is planned to remove this restriction in the future, but it creates some
+complications because of how arrays are passed in the ABI.
+
+.. index:: ! array;length, length, push, pop, !array;push, !array;pop
+
+.. _array-members:
+
+Array Members
+^^^^^^^^^^^^^
+
+**length**:
+    Arrays have a ``length`` member that contains their number of elements.
+    The length of memory arrays is fixed (but dynamic, i.e. it can depend on runtime parameters) once they are created.
+    For dynamically-sized arrays (only available for storage), this member can be assigned to resize the array.
+    Accessing elements outside the current length does not automatically resize the array and instead causes a failing assertion.
+    Increasing the length adds new zero-initialised elements to the array.
+    Reducing the length performs an implicit :ref:``delete`` on each of the
+    removed elements. If you try to resize a non-dynamic array that isn't in
+    storage, you receive a ``Value must be an lvalue`` error.
+**push**:
+     Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member function called ``push`` that you can use to append an element at the end of the array. The element will be zero-initialised. The function returns the new length.
+**pop**:
+     Dynamic storage arrays and ``bytes`` (not ``string``) have a member function called ``pop`` that you can use to remove an element from the end of the array. This also implicitly calls :ref:``delete`` on the removed element.
+
+.. warning::
+    If you use ``.length--`` on an empty array, it causes an underflow and
+    thus sets the length to ``2**256-1``.
+
+.. note::
+    Increasing the length of a storage array has constant gas costs because
+    storage is assumed to be zero-initialised, while decreasing
+    the length has at least linear cost (but in most cases worse than linear),
+    because it includes explicitly clearing the removed
+    elements similar to calling :ref:``delete`` on them.
+
+.. note::
+    It is not yet possible to use arrays of arrays in external functions
+    (but they are supported in public functions).
+
+.. note::
+    In EVM versions before Byzantium, it was not possible to access
+    dynamic arrays return from function calls. If you call functions
+    that return dynamic arrays, make sure to use an EVM that is set to
+    Byzantium mode.
+
+::
+
+    pragma solidity >=0.4.16 <0.6.0;
+
+    contract ArrayContract {
+        uint[2**20] m_aLotOfIntegers;
+        // Note that the following is not a pair of dynamic arrays but a
+        // dynamic array of pairs (i.e. of fixed size arrays of length two).
+        // Because of that, T[] is always a dynamic array of T, even if T
+        // itself is an array.
+        // Data location for all state variables is storage.
+        bool[2][] m_pairsOfFlags;
+
+        // newPairs is stored in memory - the only possibility
+        // for public contract function arguments
+        function setAllFlagPairs(bool[2][] memory newPairs) public {
+            // assignment to a storage array performs a copy of ``newPairs`` and
+            // replaces the complete array ``m_pairsOfFlags``.
+            m_pairsOfFlags = newPairs;
+        }
+
+        struct StructType {
+            uint[] contents;
+            uint moreInfo;
+        }
+        StructType s;
+
+        function f(uint[] memory c) public {
+            // stores a reference to ``s`` in ``g``
+            StructType storage g = s;
+            // also changes ``s.moreInfo``.
+            g.moreInfo = 2;
+            // assigns a copy because ``g.contents``
+            // is not a local variable, but a member of
+            // a local variable.
+            g.contents = c;
+        }
+
+        function setFlagPair(uint index, bool flagA, bool flagB) public {
+            // access to a non-existing index will throw an exception
+            m_pairsOfFlags[index][0] = flagA;
+            m_pairsOfFlags[index][1] = flagB;
+        }
+
+        function changeFlagArraySize(uint newSize) public {
+            // if the new size is smaller, removed array elements will be cleared
+            m_pairsOfFlags.length = newSize;
+        }
+
+        function clear() public {
+            // these clear the arrays completely
+            delete m_pairsOfFlags;
+            delete m_aLotOfIntegers;
+            // identical effect here
+            m_pairsOfFlags.length = 0;
+        }
+
+        bytes m_byteData;
+
+        function byteArrays(bytes memory data) public {
+            // byte arrays ("bytes") are different as they are stored without padding,
+            // but can be treated identical to "uint8[]"
+            m_byteData = data;
+            m_byteData.length += 7;
+            m_byteData[3] = 0x08;
+            delete m_byteData[2];
+        }
+
+        function addFlag(bool[2] memory flag) public returns (uint) {
+            return m_pairsOfFlags.push(flag);
+        }
+
+        function createMemoryArray(uint size) public pure returns (bytes memory) {
+            // Dynamic memory arrays are created using `new`:
+            uint[2][] memory arrayOfPairs = new uint[2][](size);
+
+            // Inline arrays are always statically-sized and if you only
+            // use literals, you have to provide at least one type.
+            arrayOfPairs[0] = [uint(1), 2];
+
+            // Create a dynamic byte array:
+            bytes memory b = new bytes(200);
+            for (uint i = 0; i < b.length; i++)
+                b[i] = byte(uint8(i));
+            return b;
+        }
+    }
+
+
+.. index:: ! struct, ! type;struct
+
+.. _structs:
+
+Structs
+-------
+
+Solidity provides a way to define new types in the form of structs, which is
+shown in the following example:
+
+::
+
+    pragma solidity >=0.4.11 <0.6.0;
+
+    contract CrowdFunding {
+        // Defines a new type with two fields.
+        struct Funder {
+            address addr;
+            uint amount;
+        }
+
+        struct Campaign {
+            address payable beneficiary;
+            uint fundingGoal;
+            uint numFunders;
+            uint amount;
+            mapping (uint => Funder) funders;
+        }
+
+        uint numCampaigns;
+        mapping (uint => Campaign) campaigns;
+
+        function newCampaign(address payable beneficiary, uint goal) public returns (uint campaignID) {
+            campaignID = numCampaigns++; // campaignID is return variable
+            // Creates new struct in memory and copies it to storage.
+            // We leave out the mapping type, because it is not valid in memory.
+            // If structs are copied (even from storage to storage), mapping types
+            // are always omitted, because they cannot be enumerated.
+            campaigns[campaignID] = Campaign(beneficiary, goal, 0, 0);
+        }
+
+        function contribute(uint campaignID) public payable {
+            Campaign storage c = campaigns[campaignID];
+            // Creates a new temporary memory struct, initialised with the given values
+            // and copies it over to storage.
+            // Note that you can also use Funder(msg.sender, msg.value) to initialise.
+            c.funders[c.numFunders++] = Funder({addr: msg.sender, amount: msg.value});
+            c.amount += msg.value;
+        }
+
+        function checkGoalReached(uint campaignID) public returns (bool reached) {
+            Campaign storage c = campaigns[campaignID];
+            if (c.amount < c.fundingGoal)
+                return false;
+            uint amount = c.amount;
+            c.amount = 0;
+            c.beneficiary.transfer(amount);
+            return true;
+        }
+    }
+
+The contract does not provide the full functionality of a crowdfunding
+contract, but it contains the basic concepts necessary to understand structs.
+Struct types can be used inside mappings and arrays and they can itself
+contain mappings and arrays.
+
+It is not possible for a struct to contain a member of its own type,
+although the struct itself can be the value type of a mapping member
+or it can contain a dynamically-sized array of its type.
+This restriction is necessary, as the size of the struct has to be finite.
+
+Note how in all the functions, a struct type is assigned to a local variable
+with data location ``storage``.
+This does not copy the struct but only stores a reference so that assignments to
+members of the local variable actually write to the state.
+
+Of course, you can also directly access the members of the struct without
+assigning it to a local variable, as in
+``campaigns[campaignID].amount = 0``.